m^^m'^^^^^mf^ 










^^^n 






LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Shelf_(!.rS4 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 




ii? 



99 \aft^ 



COMPLETE 

HISTORICAL COMPENDIUM; 

OR 

SHORT HISTORY 

OF 

THE HUMAN RACE; 

ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL AND MODERN. 



EMBRACING A 



General Survey of the Progress of Mankind in National Life, Civil Govern- 
ment, Religion, Science, Literature, Art and Social Life. 



" jl BY 



ISRAEL SMITH CLARE, 

Author of " Illustrated Universal History.' 



" Not to know what happened before we were bom is to remain always a child ; for what were 
the life of man did we not combine present events with the recollections of past ages?" — Cicero. 



..- } 



{ SEP 2 . , , 

LANCASTER, PA. 



•Asrv>,<.^), 




CorYRIGHT, 1884, 
BY 

ISRAEL SMITH CLARE. 

All Rights Resemed. 



INQUIRER PRINTING CO., 

iTEREOTYPERS AND PRINTERS, 

LANCASTER, PA. 



ft 



PREFACE. 



The great popularity of the author's Illustrated Universal History — as attested 
by a circulation of 35,000 copies throughout the United States, during the past 
eight years — has encouraged the author to follow up that publication by a new 
work, giving a philosophical view of the progress of the human race in civiliza- 
tion — namely, an account of the manners and customs, rehgions, science, litera- 
ture and art of the difterent peoples of ancient, mediaeval, and modern times, as 
well as to record the civil, political, and military events in the history of nations. 
Knowing this to be a fast age, when the great mass of the people can not find 
time to read or study voluminous works, the author has endeavored to give the 
history of mankind in a nutshell — in other words, he has endeavored to give a 
full history of the human race in as few words as possible. 

The work is divided into three parts, each containing the record of an import- 
ant era in the history of the world. Part First contains an historical account of 
the ancient world — the period from the earliest dawn of civilization to the fall of 
the Western Roman Empire, A. D. 476. Part Second embraces the history of 
the Middle Ages — the period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the 
Discovery of America, A. D. 1492. Part Third comprises a record of the modern 
epoch — the period from the Discovery of America to the present time. 

Great historical events have been arranged logically rather than chronologically, 
and great care has been taken to detail facts in proportion to their relative im- 
portance. The author has also taken great pains to omit what is irrelevant, and 
he has selected from the great mass of historical matter those events which have 
exerted a controlling influence upon the destinies of the world. 

The greatest prominence is given to the annals of those nations of ancient and 
modern times which have acted a leading part on the stage of the world's history; 
and, with this view, Greece and Rome are made to stand out with their due 
prominence among the nations of antiquity, while Germany, France, England and 
America are exhibited as the leading actors in the modern drama. 

To assist the reader in acquiring and retaining a knowledge of the facts related, 
and to observe their historical relation, the subject-matter of this work is arranged 
in chapters, and these chapters are divided into sections; while each subject is 
minutely analyzed, and the outlines of the various subjects furnish appropriate 
headings for the different paragraphs. 

History begins with the origin of nations and the establishment of civil and 
political institutions. The fabulous and mythical portions of the histories of the 
different nations are either wholly omitted in the historical text of this work, or 
dwelt upon very lightly. 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

After the historical matter is a sketch of the British Constitution ; also the Con- 
stitution of the United States, the American Declaration of Independence, Presi- 
dent Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, a sketch of the historic legends, a 
table of important historical events, and a table of sovereigns and rulers. 

With these few introductory remarks, the author submits this little volume to the 
public, with the hope that it may supply a long-felt want in the province of his- 
iorical publications. 

I. S. CLARE. 

Lancaster, Pa., August i, 1SS4. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction 9 

Ethnological Tables 13 

PART FIRST.-ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Chapter I. Ancient Oriental Ahitions IS 

Section I. Ancient Egypt 15 

Section II. Chaldsea, Assyria, and Babylonia 19 

Section III. The Phoenicians 23 

Section IV. The Hebrews, or Israelites 24 

Section V. Ethiopia, Carthage, Syria, and Asia Minor 28 

Section VI. The Median and Medo-Persian Empires 30 

Section VII. The Ancient Hindoos, or Indians 33 

Section VIII. Ancient China 36 

Chapter II. Rise of Greece 37 

Section I. Geography of Ancient Greece 37 

Section II. Greek Religion 37 

Section III. Primeval Greece and the Heroic Age 40 

Section IV. Sparta and Athens during the Period of the Lawgivers. . . 42 

Section V. Early Greek Poetry and Philosophy 46 

Chapter III. Greece's Flourishing Period 47 

Section I. The Persian War 47 

Section II. Supremacy of Athens and Age of Pericles • 49 

Section III. The Peloponnesian War 50 

Section IV. Spartan and Theban Ascendency 52 

Section V. Greek Philosophy, Literature, and Art. (Flourishing Period). 54 

Section VI. Greek Social Life, Manners and Customs 55 

Chapter IV. Macedonian Empire and Fall of Greece 59 

Section I. Philip of Macedon 59 

Section II. Alexander the Great 60 

Section III. Alexander's Successors 63 

Section IV. Greek Philosophy, Literature, and Art. (Last Period.) . . 70 

Chapter V. The Roman Kingdom and Republic 72 

Section I. Ancient Italy 7^ 

(5) 



6 CONTENTS. 

PACK 

Section II. The Roman Religion 73 

Section III. Primeval Rome, or Rome under the Kings 74 

Section IV. The Roman Republic's Struggle for Existence and Consti- 
tutional Development 7b 

Section V. Samnite Wars and Rome's Conquest of Italy 80 

Section VI. Punic Wars and Rome's Foreign Conquests 83 

Section VII. Civil Wars and Fall of the Roman Republic 90 

Chapter VI. The Rotnan Empire 100 

Section I. The Flourishing Period of the Empire 100 

Section II. Period of Decline and Military Despotism 108 

Section III. Constantine the Great and the Triumph of Christianity . . 112 

Section IV. The Northern Barbarians and Fall of the Western Roman 

Empire 116 

Section V. Roman Social Life, Customs and Manners 119 



PART SECOND.-MEDI^VAL HISTORY. 

Chapter I. The Dark Ages 1 24 

Section I. The New Races in Europe 124 

Section II. The Eastern Roman Empire 126 

Section III. Islam's Rise and the Saracen Empire 129 

Section IV. The Western Empire Restored 133 

Section V. The Normans and Danes 138 

Chapter II. Mecawval Ettropean Civilization 140 

Section I. The Feudal System 140 

Section II. Chivalry 142 

Section III. The Papacy and Hierarchy 143 

Section IV. Monachism 144 

Section V. Mediaeval Learning and Literature 146 

Section VI. European Towns, Commerce, and Social Life 148 

Chapter III. The Crusades 150 

Section I. Origin of the Crusades 150 

Section II. The First Crusade 151 

Section III. Second and Third Crusades 153 

Section IV. Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Crusades 155 

Section V. Results of the Crusades 157 

Chapter IV. European Nations 159 

Section I. The Empire and the Church 159 

Section II. Feudal France under the Capet and Valois Dynasties. . . 165 
Section III. Feudal England under the Norman and Plantagenet Dy- 
nasties 169 

Section IV. Italian States 174 

Section V. Spain and Portugal 178 

Section VI. Scotland and the Northern and Eastern Nations of Europe . 179 
Section VII. The Mogul and Ottoman Empires 184 



CONTENTS. 7 

PAGE 

Chapter V. Age of Revival and Maritime Discovery 1 85 

Section I. Progress of Civilization and Invention 185 

Section II. The Sea Passage to India 186 

Section III. The Discovery of America 187 

PART THIRD -MODERN HISTORY. 

Chapter I. Sixteenth Century 1 90 

Section I. French Wars in Italy and Rise of the European States- 
System 190 

Section II. Wars of the Emperor Charles V. with Francis I., of 

France 192 

Section III. The Emperor Charles V. and the Reformation 195 

Section IV. Henry VIII. and the Church of England 201 

Section V. Philip II. of Spain and Rise of the Dutch Republic . . . 203 

Section VI. Wars of Religion in France 207 

Section VII. England under Queen Elizabeth 209 

Section VIII. Discoveries, Colonial Empires, and Asiatic Powers . . .213 
Section IX. Progress of Civilization in the Sixteenth Century .... 214 

Chapter II. Seventeenth Century 217 

Section I. The Thirty Years' War 217 

Section II. Revolutionary England under the Stuarts 221 

Section III. Ascendency of France during the Age of Louis XIV. . . . 232 

Section IV. Rise of the States-System in the North and East of Europe . 237 

Section V. England's North American Colonies 240 

Section VI. Progress of Civilization in the Seventeenth Century .... 249 

Chapter III. Eighteenth Century 254 

Section I. War of the Spanish Succession 254 

Section II. Peter the Great of Russia, and Charles XII. of Sweden, 

in the Northern War 257 

Section III. Europe from 1714 to 1740 261 

Section IV. War of the Austrian Succession 263 

Section V. The Seven Years' War 265 

Section VI. Europe during the Reign of Catharine the Great of Russia . 271 

Section VII. The American Revolution 274 

Section VIII. The French Revolution 284 

Section IX. Progress of Civilization in the Eighteenth Century .... 297 

Chapter IV. Nineteenth Centtiry 308 

Section I. The Consulate and the Empire, or Napoleon Bonaparte's 

Career 308 

. Section II. Progress of the United States of America 318 

Section III. New States-System and Revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848 . 328 
Section IV. Anti-Slavery Struggle and Civil War in the United States . 341 

Section V. Times of Napoleon III. and Prince Bismarck 353 

Section VI. Progress of Civihzation in the Nineteenth Century . . . .372 



8 CONTENTS. 

SUPPLEMENT. 

British Cottstittitiou t.Q'X 

Constitution of the United States 398 

Declaration of Independence 412 

Proclamation of Emancipation 415 

Historic Legends 417 

Important Events 424 

So7'ereigns and Rulers 4150 



INTRODUCTION. 



1. Definition of History. — History is a record of the events which 
have occurred among mankind, embracing an account of the rise and 
fall of nations, and other great changes which have affected the po- 
litical and social condition of the human race. 

2. History in a special sense. — In a more limited sense, History is 
a record of the progress of mankind in civilization; and, therefore, 
deals especially with those nations which have performed great 
achievements and exerted a commanding influence upon the for- 
tunes of the human race. 

3. Triple division of History. — History is generally divided into 
three great epochs : 

/. Ancient History — beginning with the first appearance of his- 
toric records, and ending with the fall of the Western Roman Em- 
pire, A. D. 476. 

2. Medieval History, or the History of the Middle Ages — ex- 
tending from the fall of Rome, A. D. 476, to the Discovery of 
America, A. D. 1492. 

J. Modern History — embracing the period from the Discovery of 
America to the present time. 

4. Double division. — Sometimes, however, the world's history is 
divided into only two great periods — Ancient and Modern; Ancient 
History embracing the whole period before the fall of Rome, A. D. 
476, and Modern History comprising the entire period since that 
event. This double division is perhaps the more logical of the two, 
as ancient civilization passed away with the extinction of the Roman 
Empire, while modern nations and modern institutions tooktheir 
rise from that point. The triple division, however, is the more con- 
venient, and for that reason we shall follow it in this work. 

5. Sacred and Profane History. — History is also divided into 
Sacred and Profane History ; the former being that which is con- 
tained in the sacred scriptures, and the latter that which is recorded 
in other books. 

^9) 



lo INTRODUC7'IOi\: 

6. Ecclesiastical and Civil or Political History. — Ecclesiastical 
History is the history of the Christian Church. Civil or Political 
History deals with the rise, progress, and fall of nations. 

7. The History of Civilization. — The History of Civilization is that 
department of History which treats of the progress of different 
nations in the arts, sciences, literature, and social culture. 

8. Philosophy of History. — The Philosophy of History treats of the 
events of the past in connection with their causes and consequences, 
and deduces from them certain principles, which may serve as a 
guide to statesmen in conducting the affairs of nations. 

9. Aids to History. — Concerning the human race outside of nations, 
there is much important knowledge furnished by different sciences. 
Among these sciences are: 

1. Ethnology, or the science of the various races or types of man- 
kind. 

2. Archeology, or the science of the ancient works of man. 

3. Philology, or the science of language. 

4. Anthropology, or the science which deals with man in natural 
history. 

10. Chronolog-y. — Chronology is that department of history which 
treats of the precise time or date of each event with respect to some 
fixed time called an era, or epoch. 

11. Time and Dates. — Christian nations compute time from the 
birth of Christ, while Mohammedan nations reckon from the 
Hegira, or Mohammed's flight from Mecca, which event oc- 
curred in the year 622 of the Christian era. The Ancient Greeks 
dated from the first Olympiad, 776 years before the Christian era; 
the Ancient Romans from the founding of Rome, 753 years before 
the Christian era. B. C. means Before Christ, and A. D., or Afino 
Domini, signifies In the year of aur Lord. No dates can be estab- 
lished with certainty for events in Ancient History of any period 
more-than five centuries before Christ. 

12. Great Historians. — Among the writers of history of antiquity 
was the great Hebrew lawgiver, Moses, the earliest sacred historian. 
The greatest historians of Ancient Greece were Herod'otus, "the 
Father of History," Thucyd'ides, Xen'ophon, Cte'sias, Diodo'rus 
Sic'ulus, Polyb'ius, Stra'bo, and Plu'tarch. Ancient Rome produced 
Liv'y, Tac'itus, Sal'lust, Corne'lius Ne'pos, Plin'y, and others. Jo- 
sephus was the great Jewish historian of antiquity, and Manetho the 
most eminent historian of Ancient Egypt. In modern times the 



INTR OD UC TION. 1 1 

greatest historians have been the Italian, Macchiavelli ; the Eng- 
lishman, Gibbon; the Scotchmen, Robertson, Hume, and Macaulay; 
the Frenchmen, Sismondi, Thiers, and Guizot; and the Americans, 
Prescott, Bancroft, and Motley. 

13. Mankind and its divisions. — Asia is tKe cradle of the human 
race. In the region between the Euphrates and the Indus, and the 
Arabian Sea and the Hindoo Koosh, mankind spent its infancy. 
Mankind has been classed in five great divisions, or races — the 
Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the Malay, and the 
American. 

14. Forms of Government. — In the Prehistoric Ages — that is, the 
ages before recorded history — the /a/r/a^ry^^/ form of government 
prevailed ; each father, or head of a family, governing the whole 
family. Since the formation of nations there have been various 
forms of government — Autocracy , despotism, or absolute monarchy, 
where the supreme power is vested in the monarch himself, without 
any restraint or limitation ; Limited or constitutional monarchy, 
where the power of the monarch is limited by law or by con- 
stitutions giving the nobility, or aristocracy, and the masses some 
share in the government ; Aristocracy, or government by nobles, or 
aristocrats ; Theocracy, or government by the Church in the name 
of the Deity ; Hierarchy, or government by priests ; and Detnocracy, 
or government by the people in general. The last named form of 
government is also called Republicanism, though there have been 
several kinds of republics — aristocratic, by the few, and democratic, 
by the masses. 

15. Tarieties of Religion. — Man is naturally a religious being. A. 
world-wide religious sentiment seems to prevail, but there have been 
many varieties or manifestations of this sentiment. Thus we have 
Monotheism, or the belief in one God ; Polytheism, or the belief in 
many gods; Pantheism, or the system which regards the whole uni- 
verse, with all its laws, and the different manifestations of natufe, as 
the Supreme Being. Many polytheistic and pantheistic nations 
have made idols, or images, as figures or representations of their 
deities, and for this reason have been called idolators, pagans, or 
heathen. The four great monotheistic religions of the world have 
been the ancient Persian religion of Zoroaster ; Judaistn, or the re- 
ligion of the Jews; Christianity; and Mohammedanism, or Islam. 
The leading polytheistic religions were those of the ancient Egyp- 
tians, Chaldaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Greeks,,. 



1 2 INTR OD UCTION. 

Romans, and Scandinavians. The chief pantheistic religions have 
been the two great religions of Hindoo origin — Brahmanism and 
Buddhism. 

16. Recent pliilologrical researches. — The origin of nations is in- 
volved in obscurity, which has only quite recently been partially re- 
moved by the diligent study and research of modern scholars. Inves- 
tigations into the affinities of various languages has given us some 
new knowledge of this interesting and important subject. Comparing 
the languages of most of the modern European nations with those 
spoken by the ancient Romans, Greeks, Persians, and Hindoos, we 
observe that all these languages have a common origin, entirely dif- 
ferent from those spoken by the ancient Chaldseans \kal-de' -a?is\ 
Assyrians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Arabs, and Egyptians ; these latter 
being related to each other, but not to those of the nations previously 
named. 

17. Tlie Caucasian the historical race. — The only race which has 
figured in history is the Caucasian. The history of the civilized 
world is the history of the Caucasian race. The great historical 
nations belong to this race. The only nations outside of the Cau- 
casian race attaining any degree of civilization have been the 
Chinese, the Japanese, the ancient Peruvians, and the Aztecs, or 

.ajicient Mexicans. 

18. Branches of the Caucasian race. — The Caucasian race has been 
'divided by modern philologists into three great branches : 

1. The Aryan, or Indo-European branch — embracing most of the 
nations of Europe and America ; also the Hindoos, and the ancient 
Medes and Persians. 

2. The Semitic branch — comprising the Hebrews, or Israelites, 
the Arabs, and the ancient Syrians and Assyrians ; while the ancient 
Chaldseans, Egyptians, Ethiopians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians 
— Hamitic nations — also spoke the Semitic languages. 

3. The Turanian branch — including the ancient Scythians, Parth- 
ians, and Bactrians ; also many of the modern Central Asian races, 
as well as the Ottoman Turks, and the Magyars, or Hungarians. 

19. Aryaas, Semites, and Turanians compared. — The Aryan race 
has always played the leading part in civilization, and has been the 
most active in the world's history. The Aryans are noted for polit- 
ical development, having carried civil, political, and religious free- 
dom to the highest degree of perfection ; while the Semitic race is 
noted for religious development, having given rise to three great 



INTR OD UCTION. 



13 



monotheistic religions — Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, or Moham- 
medanism. The Turanian races have been nomadic in their habits, 
wherein they have differed from the Aryan, or agricultural races. 

20. Asia compared with Europe. — Besides being the cradle of the 
human race, Asia is the birth-place of the great religions and the 
home of absolute despotism. The two great pantheistic religions — 
Brahmanism and Buddhism ; also the great monotheistic religions — 
Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism — arose 
in Asia; while Asiatic governments to-day are what they have been 
from time immemorial — absolute monarchies, or despotisms; no 
republic or constitutional monarchy ever having flourished on Asiatic 
soil. Europe, on the contrary, inhabited by the progressive Aryan 
race, has carried political institutions to the highest state of devel- 
opment; civil, political, and religious liberty having had a steady 
growth. Asiatic civilization has been stationary, while European 
civilization has been progressive. The Asiatics are passive and sub- 
missive; the Europeans active, vigilant, and aggressive. Europe 
has also colonized other portions of the globe ; the greater part of 
the present populations of North and South America being the 
descendants of Europeans who settled in the New World, and who 
drove away, or assimilated with, the aborigines ; while Europeans 
have also settled in portions of Africa, Asia, and Oceanica. The 
Asiatics, on the other hand, do not colonize. 



BRANCHES OF THE CAUCASIAN, THE ONLY 
HISTORICAL RACE. 



I. ARYAN, OR INDO-EUROPEAN BRANCH. 

1. Hindoos. 

2. Medes and Persians. 

3. Hellenes, or Greeks. 

4. Latin, or Romanic Nations. 

1. Ancient Romans. 

2. Italians. 

3. French. 

4. Spaniards and Spanish Americans. 

5. Portuguese and Brazilians. 

6. Flemings, or Belgians. 

7. Roumanians. 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

5. Germanic, or Teutonic Nations. 

1. Germans. 

2. Danes. | 

3. Swedes. V Scandinavians. 

4. Norwegians, j 

5. Dutch, or Hollanders. 

6. English and Anglo-Americans (Anglo-Saxons). 

6. Celtic Nations. 

1. Ancient Britons, Gauls, and Spaniards. 

2. Irish. 

3. Welsh. 

4. Scotch Highlanders. 

5. Bretons (West of France). 

7. Slavonic Nations. 

1 . Russians. 

2. Poles. 

3. Bohemians. 

4. Servians. 

II. SEMITIC BRANCH. 

I. Hebrews, or Israelites. "^ 

2- Arabs. I g^^j^^^ 

3. Syrians. | ^ 

4. Assyrians. J 

5. Chald^eans, or Babylonians. 1 

6. Phcenicians and Carthaginians. tt„^:^^^ 
-^ T- r Hamites. 

7. Egyptians and Ethiopians. 

8. Moors and Berbers. J 

III. TURANIAN BRANCH. 

1. Scythians 

2. Parthians. \- Ancient Turanians 
3 Bactrians 

4. Tartars. 

5. Turks. 

6. Hungarians, or Magyars. V Modern Turanians. 

7. Bulgarians. 

8. Albanians. 



PART FIRST 

ANCIENT HISTORY 



CHAPTER I. 
ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 

SECTION I.— ANCIENT EGYPT. 

1. Antiquity of Egypt. — In Egypt we first find a civil government 
and political institutions established. Egyptian history is the oldest 
history. The monuments, records, and literature of Egypt are more 
ancient than those of Chaldaea and India, the next two oldest 
nations. The ruins and monuments of ancient civilization found in 
Egypt render that country one of the most interesting on the globe. 
Egypt has been called ^' the gift of the Nile.'' The country has 
always been kept fertile by the annual inundations of the Nile, 
occasioned by the heavy rains in the high-lands of Abyssinia. 
Egypt was anciently divided into three great divisions — Upper 
Egypt, Middle Egypt, and Lower Egypt. 

2. Periods of Egyptian History. — The Nile valley was early occu- 
pied by Hamitic tribes speaking the Semitic languages. Egyptian 
history is divided into three periods : 

1. The Old Empire — from 2700 B. C. to 2100 B. C. 

2. The Middle Empire — from 2100 B. C. to 1525 B. C. 

3. The New Empire — from 1525 B. C. to 525 B. C. 

3. The Old Empire. — The oldest obelisks, most of the pyramids, 
the Labyrinth, and Lake Moe'ris were constructed during this most 
ancient period of Egyptian history. Egypt was then divided into 
a number of petty kingdoms. This period is very obscure, although 
it seems to be tolerably well settled that Me'nes was the first Egyp- 
tian king. 

(15) 



1 6 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

4. Tlie Middle Empire. — The Middle Empire was the period of 
the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, who, coming from Arabia, invaded 
and conquered Egypt about 2100 B. C. This most dismal period 
of Egyptian history was not distinguished by any great monuments. 
The Egyptian people were greatly oppressed by their foreign con- 
querors, the Hyksos. 

5. The New Empire. — About 1525 B. C. the Hyksos were driven 
out of Egypt, and the whole country was then united into one 
kingdom under a native Theban dynasty. Egypt was divided into 
a number of provinces called nomes. The New Empire was the 
most brilliant period of Egyptian history. The best known of the 
Egyptian kings of this period were Thot'mes UL, who conquered 
Syria and Nineveh ; Thotmes IV., who caused the great Sphynx to 
be constructed ; Rame'ses I.; and Rameses H. — whom the Greeks 
called Sesos'tris — who made extensive conquests in Asia and Africa, 
and adorned Egypt and Ethio'pia (now Nu'bia) with many splendid 
edifices. The exploits of these kings are recorded in hieroglyphics 
on the monuments. She'shonk — called Shishak in the Bible — at- 
tacked Judah and took Jerusalem, carrying away the treasures of 
the Temple and the palace. Psammeticus, who reigned over Egypt 
in the seventh century before Christ, invited Greek soldiers and 
settlers into his kingdom, for the purpose of weakening the priestly 
power; whereupon 240,000 Egyptians settled in Ethiopia. Necho 
\ne'ko\, the successor of Psammeticus, made Egypt a naval and 
maritime power, carried Jeho'ahez of Judah captive to Egypt, but 
was defeated by Nebuchadnez'zar of Babylon in the great battle of 
Carchemish, on the Euphrates. 

6. Conquest of Egypt by the Persians. — The last of the Pharaohs, 
or native kings of Egypt, was Psammen'itus, who was defeated in 
the bloody battle of Pelusium, and put to death by the victorious 
Camby'ses, King of Persia, who treated the Egyptians with great 
severity (B. C. 525). Egypt then became a province of the great 
Me'do-Persian Empire. Two centuries later, the country Avas con- 
quered by the famous Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great. 
Since the loss of its ancient independence, the land of the Pharaohs 
has been successively subject to the sway of the Persians, the Mace- 
do'nians, the Romans, the Sar'acens, the Mam'elukes, and the Turks; 
the last of whom still hold the country tributary. 

7. Civilization of tlie Eg-yptians.— The fertilizing of the soil by the 
annual inundation of the Nile, and the irrigation of the country by 



ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



17 



means of numerous canals, contributed to make Egypt the great 
granary of antiquity, and agriculture received much attention from 
the Egyptians. This great ancient people excelled in the useful 
arts, such as weaving cotton and linen cloth, and working in cop- 
per and brass ; in the fine arts, such as music, painting, sculpture, 
and architecture ; and in the sciences, such as geometry, arithmetic, 
chemistry, and medicine. The Egyptians were acquainted with the 
art of writing at an early period ; and on rolls oi papyrus, the paper- 
plant, they recorded the deeds of their ancestors. Their prayers 
and instructions as to the future state were recorded in the Books of 
the Dead, or religious manuscripts. The ruins of grand edifices and 
magnificent columns fully testify to their great skill in architecture. 
An extensive commerce was carried on with other countries; gold, 
ivory, ebony, skins, and slaves, being brought from Ethiopia, in- 
cense from Arabia, and spices from India ; and in exchange for 
these articles, grain and cloth were exported ; but as the Egyptians 
had not attained much skill in the art of ship-building, their trade 
was carried on principally by the Greek and Phoenician merchants. 

8. The great cities of Memphis and Thebes. — The capital of Middle 
Egypt, or Heptan'omis, was Memphis, the City of the Pharaohs, the 
founding of which is ascribed to the first Egyptian king, Me'nes. 
This great city was located on the west side of the Nile, in the region 
containing the most splendid of the pyramids, which extend for a 
distance of seventy miles on the west side of the Nile. Among the 
ruins of Memphis are those of the Labyrinth, a building consisting 
of a number of intricate passages communicating with each other. 
The capital of Upper Egypt, or the Thebais, was the magnificent 
city of Thebes, the founding of which is also attributed to Menes. 
by some writers, while others think that Thebes was built many cen- 
turies later. Thebes is said to have extended over twenty-three- 
miles, and to have had 100 gates. Its immense size and great 
splendor are still attested by the ruins of magnificent temples, splen- 
did palaces, colossal statues, obelisks, sphinxes, the tombs of kmgs ■ 
hewn in the solid rock, and the subterranean catacombs. The ruins, 
of Thebes extend for seven miles along both banks of the Nile. 

9. The Pyramids and Sphynx. — The Nile valley is studded with, 
ruins of ancient cities. The Pyramids — believed to have been 
erected as the tombs of the Egyptian kings — are the most imposing, 
monuments ever erected by human hands. They are found in. 
groups — the largest three being those of Ghizeh \_£^e'za\ near Cairo 
\ki'ro\ in the vicinity of the ancient Memphis. The largest of the • 



1 8 ANCIENT HIS TOR V. 

Pyramids of Ghizeh — said to be about 4,000 years old — is built of 
vast stone blocks, is 450 feet high, and its base covers thirteen acres. 
It is said to have been built by King Cheops \_^c'oJ>s']; that 100,000 
men were forced to work upon this pyramid at a time, that a new 
army of laborers were employed every three months, and that the 
building of the Pyramid occupied forty years. Near the Pyramid 
of Ghizeh is the Great Sphynx, or woman -headed lion, 188 feet 
long and 60 feet high, cut from solid rock. Between its gigantic 
paws were found the remains of a temple, wherein sacrifices were 
offered to the huge figure. 

10. Egyptian castes. — There was a close relation between the gov- 
ernment and religion of Egypt, and the division into castes was a 
part of the religion of the country. The ancient Egyptians were 
a brown race, and were divided into seven distinct classes, or castes. 
The most highly respected of these castes were the priests and the 
warriors ; next, the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and 
sailors ; while the shepherds, who composed the lowest caste, were 
greatly despised. 

11. Eg'yptian religion. — The ancient Egyptian religion embraced 
some lofty and noble conceptions. The priests and the learned be- 
lieved in a monotheism, and considered it impious to represent the 
Supreme Being by images and idols, but they made him known 
to the masses by personifying his various attributes, as Phtah 
the Creator, Ainun the Revealer, and Osiris the Benefactor and 
Judge. Isis was the wife of Osiris. Besides this polytheism the 
masses indulged in a horrible animal worship, and certain beasts, 
birds, reptiles, and plants were considered sacred. The bull-deity, 
Apis, at Memphis, represented Osiris, and at his death was buried 
with the greatest pomp and solemnity. Other animal deities were 
the sacred calf at Heliop'olis, the sacred sheep at Sais and Thebes, 
and the sacred crocodiles at Ombos and Arsinoe. The cat, the ibis, 
and the beetle were particular objects of worship. The death of a 
cat in a private house caused the whole family to shave their eye- 
brows in token of their grief. The annual overflowing of the Nile 
was always celebrated by a nine days' feast in honor of Osiris, the 
Benefactor of men. The Egyptians believed in a future state, and 
that its happiness depended upon well-doing in this world. Judges 
were selected to try the dead, and any one was at liberty to bring 
accusations against the deceased. If it was clearly shown that the 
deceased had led an evil life, the body was not honored with a 
burial. Even kings were subjected to this solemn judgment, and 



ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



19 



the fear which it inspired exercised a wholesome influence over all 
classes. It was also believed that the soul must appear before a 
judgment-seat of the gods, and that it could not enter the abode of 
the blessed unless acquitted by these last judges, and sealed by them 
as justified, when the body was returned to its earthly abode. The 
belief that the soul would return to the body from which it had de- 
parted caused great care to be taken to preserve the body from 
decay, and hence the custom of embalming the dead, and hence 
also the pyramids, which were built by the kings to preserve their 
mortal remains from decay. After embalming the body, joyous 
feasts were held in the house of its earthly abode for a month or 
year, after which it passed the sacred lake, and was interred in a 
tomb richly ornamented. In recent years, the mortal remains of 
these ancient Egyptians — known as mummies — have been brought 
from the land of the Pharaohs to adorn our museums. 

SECTION II.— CHALD^A, ASSYRIA, AND BABYLONIA. 

1. Empii'es in tlie ralleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris. — The 

valleys of the Euphra'tes and the Ti'gris were early inhabited by 
Semitic and Hamitic tribes ; and three great empires successively 
flourished in this region: i. The Chaldaean \kal-d^-m{\, or Early 
Babylonian Empire (B. C. 2500-1250). 2. The Assyrian Empire 
(B. C. 1250-625). 3. The Later Babylonian Empire (B. C. 625- 
538). 

2. The ChaWsean Empire. — The Chaldaean, or Early Babylonian 
Empire was the first great monarchy of Western Asia. The Hebrew 
Scriptures mention Nimrod, "the mighty hunter before the Lo7-d,^'' 
as the founder of this ancient empire, and of its great cities — 
Bab'ylon, E'rech, Ac'cad, and Cal'neh. Ur, at this early period, 
was a greater city than Babylon. 

3. Civilization of tlie Chaldees. — At this early period — earlier than 
2000 B. C. — the Chaldees {kal-dee^l made considerable progress in 
the arts, especially in architecture. Their materials in building 
were brick and bitumen, with which they constructed edifices of 
vast size, the ruins of which have been discovered recently. Monu- 
ments have also been exhumed, bearing inscriptions in cune'iform, 
or wedge-shaped characters, which give us some light on early 
Chaldaean history. The Chaldees were skillful in various arts. 
Gems were cut, polished, and engraved; metals of various kinds 
were wrought and fashioned into arms, ornaments, and implements; 
and delicate fabrics were manufactured by their looms. The primi- 



20 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

tive Chaldees worshiped the heavenly bodies, and made considera- 
ble progress in the study of astronomy. 

4. Tlie Assyrian Empire. — Nineveh. — The Assyrians were a Semitic 
people, and became independent of Chaldsea about 1250 B. C. 
Assyria rapidly grew into a powerful monarchy, and in turn sub- 
jected Chaldsea to its sway. The early capital of Assyria was As- 
shur, but at a later period Ca'lah became the capital and chief city. 
At a still later period, Nin'eveh became the Assyrian capital. Nin- 
eveh was situated on the east bank of the river Tigris, and was sur- 
rounded by a wall 100 feet high, flanked with 1,500 towers, each 
200 feet high. This great and magnificent city is believed to have 
had in its grandest period a population of about 800,000 souls. 

5. Periods of Assyria. — Assyria's history embraces three periods: 

1. The period of its subjection to Chaldcea, ending 1250 B. C; 

2. The Old Assyrian Empire (B. C. 1250-745); 3. The New or 
Lower Assyrian Empire (B. C. 745-625). The last Assyrian king 
of the first period was Tig'lathi-Nin I., supposed to be the legend- 
ary Ninus, the mythical founder of Nineveh. The most important 
Assyrian monarchs of the second period were the famous Asshur- 
izir-pal, supposed to be the fabulous Sardanap'alus; Vul-lush III., 
whose wife was the Babylonian princess, Sam'mura'mit, the legend- 
ary Semir'amis; and Tig'lath-Pile'ser I., after whose reign the Assy- 
rian Empire rapidly declined, and Chalda^a, or Babylonia, became 
independent for a time (B. C. 747-680). 

6. New or Lower Assyrian Empire. — The seven Assyrian monarchs 
of the third period, or the New or Lower Assyrian Empire (B. C. 
745-625), were all, but the last, great conquerors. Tig'lath-Pile'ser 
II. — the restorer of Assyrian greatness — conquered Egypt, Syria, 
Phcenicia, the Philistines, Israelites, and Arabs. Shalmane'ser IV. 
subdued Phcenicia, but failed in his attack on Tyre, and began the 
siege of Samaria. Sargon — who recorded many conquests in his 
palace at Khorsabad — took Samaria and carried the Israelites cap- 
tive to Assyria, defeated the Egyptians and reduced Cyprus. Sar- 
gon's son and successor, Sennac'herib, took Babylon, defeated the 
Egyptians, carried 200,000 Jews captive to Babylon, but lost an 
army in a second expedition against Judah, and was murdered by 
his sons. Esarhad'don conquered a large part of Western Asia and 
Egypt and Ethiopia; took Manasseh, king of Judah, a prisoner, 
but restored him to his throne; and resided alternately at Babylon 
and Nineveh. Esarhad'don's son and successor, Asshur-bani-pal, 



ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 21 

conquered Egypt, Asia Minor, Armenia, Susiana, and Arabia; 
built a magnificent palace; founded a royal library at Nineveh; 
and patronized music and the arts. Sar'acus — the last Assyrian 
king — was a weak monarch, and was unable to check Scythian 
invasions. 

7. Destruction of Nmeveh and fall of the A>ssyrian Empire. — Under 
the weak rule of Saracus, the Assyrian Empire rapidly declined ; 
and when the Medes and Susianians, led by the Median king, 
Cyaxares \sy-ax' -a-reez\ invaded Assyria, Nabopolas'ser, the gen- 
eral of Saracus, turned traitor and led a revolt of the Babylonians, 
uniting his forces with those of Cyaxares, who gave his daughter in 
marriage to Nabopolasser's son, Nebuchadnez'zar ; and the united 
Median and Babylonian armies took and destroyed Nineveh (B. C. 
625). Unable to defend his capital, Saracus set fire to his palace 
and perished with it in the flames. Thus fell the Assyrian Empire, 
and its territories were divided between the conquering Medes and 
Babylonians. For many centuries the spot where Nineveh had 
stood was covered with mounds, beneath which were buried the 
ruins of its splendid temples and palaces, and works of art ; but in 
recent years, excavations have been made under the auspices of the 
Englishman Layard and others, and the remains of its ancient 
monuments, statues, and pictured walls have been found ; and many 
wonderful works of sculpture from the site of that famous city now 
adorn the European museums. 

8. Ciiilization of the Assyrians. — The Assyrians, a Semitic race, 
made great progress in manufactures and the useful arts, and in 
sculpture and architecture they far surpassed the Egyptians ; but in 
literature and science they were far behind the Chaldceans and the 
Egyptians. They had transparent glass and even lenses, and under- 
stood the arts of inlaying, enameling, and overlaying with metals. 
They cut gems with skill and finish, and constructed tunnels, aque- 
ducts, and drains; and in the useful arts they almost rivalled the 
moderns. The Assyrians were a strongly religious people, but their 
system of worship was a gross polytheism, the chief of their gods 
being Asshur. 

9. The Babylonian Empire — Nebuchadnezzar. — After Babylon had 
been subject to Assyria five centuries, it became independent under 
Nabonas'sar in 747 B. C, from which point the Babylonians there- 
after reckoned time, calling the epoch the Era of Nabo7iassar. 
In 680 B. C. Babylon again became subject to Assyria, but in 625 
B. C. it recovered its independence under Nabopolasser, who aided 



22 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Cyaxares, King of Media, in destroying Nineveh and overthrowing 
the Assyrian Empire, as already stated. Nabopolasser — the first 
king of the Later Babylonian Empire — was succeeded by his son 
Nebuchadnezzar, under whom the Babylonian Empire reached the 
zenith of its greatness. Nebuchadnezzar arrested the conquering 
career of Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, in the great battle of 
Carchemish, on the Euphrates ; took Tyre after a thirteen years* 
siege ; and subdued the Kingdom of Judah, taking and destroying 
Jerusalem, and carrying the Jews captive to Babylon. He adorned 
Babylon with many splendid works, such as the Hanging Gardens, 
and secured the city with massive walls. Under him, Babylon — 
which stood on both sides of the Euphrates — became the most splen- 
did city in the world. The walls of Babylon were 350 feet high 
and 87 feet thick, flanked with high towers, and pierced with 100 
gates of brass. In his pride, Nebuchadnezzar exclaimed : "'Is not 
this great Babylon, that I have built for the head of my kingdom, 
by the might of my power, and for the honor of my majesty!" 
But the same hour he was struck with lunacy, and for seven years 
he remained a madman, after which his reason returned. The 
Babylonian Empire rapidly declined under Nebuchadnezzar's suc- 
cessors. • 

10. Conqnest of Babjlon by Cyrus the Great of Persia. — The last 
Babylonian king was Nabona'dius, who shared his power with his son 
Belshaz'zar. Nabonadius was defeated by Cyrus the Great, King of 
Persia, who captured Babylon by entering the city through the 
channel of the Euphrates, diverting the stream through a new chan- 
nel ; and the astonished Belshazzar, who was at the time feasting 
with his nobles and defiling the sacred vessels of the Jews, was put 
to death by the victorious Persians. Thus fell the mighty Babylon, 
and the Babylonian dominions fell under the sway of the great 
Me'do-Persian Empire (B. C. 538). 

11. CiTilization of the Later Babylonians. — The Later Babylonians^ 
a Semitic and Hamitic race, were celebrated for their learning, and 
made great advances in astronomy and mathematics, and in other 
sciences. The Baylonians were a manufacturing and commercial 
people. The looms of Babylon produced fine textile fabrics, such 
as carpets and muslins ; and these were exchanged for the frankin- 
cense of Arabia, for the pearls and gems of India, for tin and cop- 
per from Phoenicia, and for the silk, gold, and ivory of the distant 
East. The Babylonian religion, like the Assyrian, was a gross poly- 
theism, the chief of their gods being Bel' us, or Ba'al. 



ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 23 

SECTION III.— THE PHCENICIANS. 

1. Position and character of the Phoenician territory. — Phoenicia 
\_fe-nish'-e-a] was the name applied to a narrow strip of territory 
bordered on the east by the mountains of Lebanon, and on the west 
by the Mediterranean sea. The surface of the country was sandy 
and hilly, and not adapted to agriculture; but the coasts abounded 
with good harbors, and the cedars of Lebanon supplied material in 
great abundance for ship-building. The Phoenicians therefore de- 
voted their whole attention to manufactures and commerce, and at 
a very early period they became the greatest manufacturing, com- 
mercial, and maritime people of antiquity. 

2. Phoenician states and colonies. — The Phoenician people were not 
united under one government, but each Phoenician city with the 
territory adjacent to it constituted a small independent state with 
an hereditary sovereign at its head, the political power being how- 
ever shared with the priests and the nobles. The Phoenician wor- 
ship of Alo' loch was attended with horrible human sacrifices and 
that of ^aW with disgraceful ceremonies. Phoenician colonies were 
established on the Mediterranean islands of Cy'prus, Crete, Sicily 
and Sardinia ; on the Southern shores of Spain, and on the North- 
ern coast of Africa. The most celebrated of the Phoenician colonial 
establishments were Ga'des (now Ca'diz) in Southern Spain, the 
oldest city in Europe, and Carthage, in Northern Africa, a commer- 
cial city which was founded in the year 878 B. C, by the Tyrians 
under the conduct of Queen Di'do, and the fame of which soon 
eclipsed that of the mother country. 

3. PhaMiician manufactures, navigation, and commerce. — The Phoe- 
nicians made some important discoveries, such as glass, the art of 
dyeing purple, and that of writing by means of letters. They were 
universally noted for their skill in casting metals, weaving, and 
architecture. Their manufactures of glass and linen, articles of 
gold, silver, ivory, and bronze, perfumes, and purple dye, were 
sources of great national wealth. Phoenician vessels not only navi- 
gated the Mediterranean sea for the purpose of trafficking in their 
own productions, and in those of the remote East, namely spices, 
frankincense, oil, wine, corn, and slaves; but they even passed be- 
yond the Pillars of Hercules \Jier'-ku-leez\ (Strait of Gibraltar), and 
procured tin from the mines of Cornwall, in Britain, and traded 
with the rude natives on the shores of the Baltic sea. The Phoeni- 
cians also had commercial intercourse with the Arabs and the Hin- 
doos ; and it is said that under the auspices of Pharaoh Necho, 



24 



ANCIENT HIS TOR V. 



King of Egypt, a Phoenician fleet, in a voyage of three years, 
doubled the Cape of Good Hope. 

4. Tyre aud Sidoii. — Decline and fall of the Phoenician states. — The 

leading Phoenician cities were Tyre and Sidon. These two king- 
doms for a long time defended themselves successfully against the 
attempts of other nations to subdue them; but finally, in the eighth 
century before Christ, Phoenicia became tributary to Assyria. 
Sargon, King of Assyria, failed in a five years' siege of Tyre ; but 
Sennacherib besieged and took Tyre, and Esarhaddon took and 
destroyed Sidon, but the city was afterwards rebuilt. In the year 
587 B. C, Nebuchadnezzar, of Babylon, took Tyre after a thirteen 
years' siege ; but many of the inhabitants sailed away to Carthage, 
and Phoenicia became a province of the Babylonian Empire. 
When, in the year 538 B. C, Cyrus the Great, King of Persia, ex- 
tended his sway over Western Asia, both Tyre and Sidon fell into 
his power and Phoenicia became a province of the great Medo- 
Persian Empire. About the year 350 B. C, Sidon, heading a re- 
bellion of the Phoenician states, attempted to throw off the Persian 
yoke; and when, in consequence of this revolt, the King of Persia 
ordered the most prominent inhabitants of Sidon to be put to death, 
the Sidonians set fire to their city, and perished with it in the flames. 
Sidon was afterwards rebuilt. In the year 332 B. C, Tyre was 
taken and destroyed, after a seveo months' siege, by the Mace- 
donian conqueror, Alexander the Great; and 8,000 Tyrians were 
put to death, and 30,000 sold into slavery. With the fall of Tyre 
and the founding of the great commercial city of Alexandria, in 
Egypt, Phoenician commercial and maritime glory passed away 
forever. 

SECTION IV.— THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES. 

1. Tlie Hebrew patriarchs. — Abraham, who was a native of Ur, 
in Chaldaea, and a shepherd of the Semitic race, and who had con- 
tinued faithful to Jehovah (or Elohim) when all the rest of mankind 
were sunk in idolatry, was the founder of Jehovah's chosen race — 
the Hebrews, or Israelites. About 2080 B. C, Abraham settled in 
Ca'naan, or Palestine; and his son and grandson, Isaac and Jacob, 
continued the chosen race. Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, was sold 
by his eleven brethren as a bond-slave into Egypt, where he arose 
to eminence, and was made prime-minister to Pharaoh, the Egyptian 
king. Joseph induced his father and brethren to settle in Egypt 
(B. C. 1867). 



ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



25 



2. The Bondage in Egypt. — The Exodus and Wanderings. — The 
Laws of Moses. — For two centuries, the descendants of Jacob, or 
Israel — then called Israelites — were oppressed in Egypt ; and were 
finally delivered from the Egyptian bondage by their great leader, 
Moses, who led them out of Egypt, pursued by Pharaoh's hosts, 
which were destroyed in the Red Sea (B. C. 1652). For forty 
years, the Israelites, led by Moses and his brother Aaron, wandered 
in "the Wilderness," in Northwestern Arabia; during which Moses 
delivered the Decalogue, or Ten Commandments, and other laws to 
his people, from Mount Sinai. The laws of Moses were preserved 
in the A)-k of the Covetiant. The affairs of religion were conducted 
by the High Priest and the Levites. Sacrifices of animals, and the 
feasts of the Passover, the Pentecost, and the Tabernacles, formed 
the bond between Elohim and his chosen people. Every fiftieth 
year {Year of Jubilee) a new and equal distribution of the lands 
was made. The civil government established by Moses for the 
Hebrews was a theocratic form; and the Elders of the Twelve 
Tribes of Israel conducted the government in Jehovah's name. 

3. Conquest of Canaan by Joshua. — The Period of the Judges. — 
After Moses, the great lawgiver, had died on Mount Nebo, the 
Israelites, under Joshua, reached the " Promised Land" of Canaan, 
or Palestine, which they seized and conquered from the idolatrous 
tribes inhabiting it. For several centuries the Hebrew nation was 
ruled by Judges. During this period the Hebrews were engaged in 
many wars with the Philis'tines, Mo'abites, Ca'naanites, Mid'ianites 
and other idolatrous nations. The Israelites themselves sometimes 
became idolators, and were often conquered and oppressed by their 
enemies, from whose tyrannical yoke they were liberated by valiant 
leaders. Thus the Israelites were delivered from the king of Meso- 
potamia by Othniel; from the king of Moab by Ehud; from Jabin, 
king of Canaan, by the prophetess Deborah, and Barak, her gen- 
eral; from the Midianites by Gideon; and from the Philistines by 
Jephthah and Samson. This period is known as the Heroic Age of 
the Israelites. 

4. Reigns of Saul, DaAid, and Solomon. — The last of the Judges 
was Samuel, who reluctantly, but in accordance with the desire of 
the Hebrew people, anointed Saul as first king over Israel (B. C. 
1095). Saul's subsequent dethronement caused a long civil wai 
among the Hebrews, and Saul committed suicide. Saul's successor. 
King David (B. C. 1055-1015), subdued the Philistines ; took Jeru- 
salem and its strong fortress, Mt. Ziqn, from the Jebusites, and 



26 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

made it the capital of his kingdom; conquered the Syrian kingdom 
of Damascus; made conquests in every direction; and proved him- 
self a great poet by his Psalms, or divine songs ; but his last days 
were clouded with grief on account of the rebellious and consequent 
tragic deaths of his sons, Ab'salom and Adoni'jah. The forty years' 
reign of David's son, Solomon (B. C. 1015-975), was the most 
splendid period of Jewish history. Solomon built a magnificent 
Temple to Jehovah at Jerusalem, encouraged commerce and founded 
a navy, built Tadmor (afterwards Palmyra) in the Syrian desert, 
and wrote many Frovefbs, or wise moral precepts. The Queen of 
Sheba — who had heard of his fame and wisdom — came to visit him 
from a far country. Finally, Solomon — who had taken many wives 
from different idolatrous nations — became an idolator; and enemies 
arose against him on all sides. 

5. Revolt of the Ten Tribes. — Solomon was succeeded by his son 
Rehobo'am, whose tyranny caused ten of the twelve tribes of the 
Israelites to revolt, under the leadership of Jerobo'am; and the 
Hebrew kingdom was rent in twain (^B. C. 975). From this time 
there were two Hebrew states — the Kingdom of Judah, ruled by 
Rehoboam and his successors, with Jerusalem for its capital ; and 
the Kingdom of Israel, governed by Jeroboam and his successors, 
whose capital was Sama'ria. 

6. Tlie Kingdom of Israel. — The Assyrian Captivity. — Jeroboam 
and all the succeeding Kings of Israel were idolators, and suffered 
many misfortunes. Finally Shalmaneser IV., King of Assyria, in- 
vaded the Kingdom of Israel ; and his successor, Sargon, took Sama- 
ria, its capital, after a siege of three years, and carried Hoshe'a, the 
last King of Israel, and most of his subjects, captive to Assyria 
(B. C. 721). With the Assyrian Captivity the history of the Ten 
Tribes ends. The descendants of the Israelites who remained in 
Palestine and the foreigners who settled among them, were called 
Samar' itans ; between whom and the Jews the bitterest enmity pre- 
vailed. The Kingdom of Judah lasted 135 years longer than that 
of Israel. 

7. Tlie Kingrdom of Judah. — The Bahylouian Captivity. — After the 

Revolt of the Ten Tribes, Rehoboam, who reigned at Jerusalem as 
King of Judah, and his subjects, worshiped idols. At this time Shi- 
shak, King of Egypt, invaded Judah, and took and plundered Jeru- 
salem. Most of Rehoboam's successors were also idolators, but 
Hezeki'ah was a good king, who restored the worship of Jehovah; 



ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 27 

and during his reign, Sennac'herib, King of Assyria, invaded Judah, 
Dut his mighty army was destroyed in a single night. Hezekiah's 
successors restored idolatry, and Manas'seh was carried a captive to 
Assyria, but was afterward restored to his throne. Afterwards Pha- 
raoh Necho \_ne'ko\ King of Egypt, invaded Judah and carried its 
wicked king, Jeho'ahez, captive to Egypt, where he died. At length 
Nebuchadnez'zar, King of Babylon, pillaged Jerusalem, and after- 
wards carried the wicked king, Jechoni'ah, captive to Babylon. 
Nebuchadnezzar invaded Judah a third time, took Jerusalem, after 
a siege of eighteen months, burned the city and the Temple to the 
ground, and carried Zedekiah, the last King of Judah, and most of 
his subjects, into the seventy years' Babylonian Captivity (B. C. 586). 

8. Edict of Cyrus and return of the Jews to Palestine. — After 
Cyrus the Great, King of Persia, had conquered Babylon, he issued 
an edict permitting the Jews to return to Palestine, and to rebuild 
the city and Temple of Jerusalem. Only a small number, under 
Zerub'babel, returned at first, and commenced rebuilding the Tem- 
ple, but the work was not completed until 515 B. C. About 460 
B. C, a large number of Jews, under Ezra and Nehemi'ah, returned 
to Palestine, rebuilt the Holy City and the Temple, and reestab- 
lished the laws of Moses. The King of Persia appointed Nehemiah 
governor of Judae'a, which was then a province of the vast Me'do- 
Persian Empire. Judaea was afterwards joined to the Persian satrapy 
of Syria. Here the Old Testament history of the Jews ends, and 
we will give the remaming portion of Jewish history as it is con- 
nected with the history of other nations. 

9. Hebrew literature. — Hebrew prophets. — Moses was the earliest 
sacred historian, as well as the lawgiver and founder of the Hebrew 
state. David's Psalms are among the most soul-stirring produc- 
tions of lyric poetry, and Solomon's Proverbs are among the wisest 
maxims of antiquity. The most noted of the Hebrew prophets 
were Eli'jah, Eli'sha, Jo'nah, Isa'iah, Jeremi'ah, Daniel, and Eze'- 
kiel. Isaiah, in his sublime strains of lyric poetry, foretold the 
coming of the Messiah. Jeremiah denounced divine judgments on 
his people for their apostasy from Jehovah, and in his Latnentafions 
vented his sorrow for their downfall. Daniel and Ezekiel, during 
their captivity in Babylon, delivered their prophetic visions, and 
Daniel arrived at high honors under the Babylonian kings. The 
Hebrew prophets, in general — such as Hosea, Amos, Jonah, Elijah, 
Elisha, and Ahi'jah — warned the people of the consequence of idol- 
atry. The books of the Old Testament were arranged by Ezra after 



2 8 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 

the return of the Jews from the Babylonian Captivity. The sub- 
lime works of the Hebrew bards and sages have become the perma- 
nent possession of all mankind. 

SECTION v.— ETHIOPIA, CARTHAGE, SYRIA, AND ASIA MINOR. 

1. Ethiopia. — South of Egypt — in the region now called Nubia 
and Abyssinia — lived the ancient Ethiopians, a people as highly 
civilized as the ancient Egyptians, but we know very little of their 
history. The ruins of splendid monuments, obelisks and sphynxes, 
attest their progress in the arts of building and architecture. The 
most famous of the ruins of their works are at Ipsamboul, in Nubia. 
About one thousand years before Christ, the great city of Mer'oe 
was the seat of a flourishing Ethiopian kingdom, which for a time 
held Upper Egypt under sway. 

2. Carthag-e. — The powerful republic of Carthage — a city founded 
by the Phcenician Queen Dido in the year 87S B. C. — was another 
flourishing African state, and was situated on the southern coast of the 
Mediterranean, near the site of the modern city of Tunis. Carthage 
eventually became a great maritime and commercial power; its 
navy ruled the seas ; and its colonies and territorial possessions lined 
the whole southern coast of the Mediterranean from the borders of 
Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules \Jicr'-kH-leez\ (Strait of Gibraltar) 
— a distance of two thousand miles; while Carthaginian colonies 
were also established in Spain, and in the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, 
and Corsica. In the seventh century before Christ, Carthage be- 
came involved in long and bloody wars with the Greeks of Sicily 
and Southern Italy for the possession of Sicily and the control of 
the Mediterranean commerce. The government of Carthage was 
an aristocratic republic, and was vested in a Senate, or Council of 
nobles. The religion was the Phoenician polytheism, and the most 
cruel human sacrifices and obscene ceremonies were performed in 
the worship of Moloch and Baal. For seven centuries Carthage 
was a mighty power, but its great wars with Rome led to its final 
extinction from the list of nations, and the city was razed to the 
ground by its merciless conquerors (B. C. 146). 

3. Syria. — Damascus. — Ancient Syria was occupied by various 
nations. The most important state of ancient Syria was Damascus 
— one of the oldest cities in the world. It was an important city 
even in the time of Abraham. Damascus was conquered by the 
Hebrews under King David ; but it afterward recovered its inde- 
pendence, and contended successfully against the Israelites and 



ANCIEXT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



29 



plundered Jerusalem. Damascus was afterward successively sub- 
dued by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, 
the Saracens, the Seljuk Turks, the Mogul Tartars, and lastly by 
the Ottoman Turks. 

4. Asia Miuor. — Asia Minor was the seat of various Aryan nations 
in ancient times. Th.ePhryg'ians were probably the earliest inhabi- 
tants of this peninsula. Then came the Cappado' cians ; and after 
them successively, the Thra' cians, the Bithyriians, the Paphlago ni- 
a?is, the Lyc'ians, the Famphyl'ians, the Cilic'ians, and the Lyd'ians. 
All these tribes, or nations, settled in those parts of Asia Minor 
bearing their respective names. During the great migrations among 
the Greeks eleven centuries before Christ, Grecian colonies settled 
along the whole western shore of Asia Minor. 

5. Kingdoiu of Lydia. — Alyattes and Ids war with Cyaxares of 
Media. — The Kingdom of Lydia, in the course of time, became the 
dominant power in Asia Minor, under its last five kings, who reigned 
between the years 694 B. C. and 554 B. C. Lydia was rich in the 
products of the soil and minerals, especially gold ; and consequently 
the Lydians, corrupted by luxury and wealth, became effeminate. 
In the reign of Ardys, the second of the last five kings, the Cim- 
me'rians (Crime'ans), of European Scythia — ancestors of the modern 
Cossacks of Southern Russia — ravaged Asia Minor, captured Sardis, 
the Lydian capital, and spread desolation all around. Cyaxares 
\sy-ax' -a-i'eez\ King of Media, attempted to conquer Lydia; but 
after a war of six years, as the Lydian and Median armies were 
about to engage in battle, a total eclipse of the sun so excited the 
superstitious fears of both parties that the two kings — Cyaxares of 
Media and Alyattes \a-l}^-at-teez\ of Lydia — made peace and became 
firm friends and allies. Alyattes constructed a vast monument, 01 
pyramid, whose base was a great mound of earth. This immense 
mound has been explored in modern times, and was found to con- 
tain the remains of a chamber constructed of solid blocks of marble. 

6. CroesiLS. — Conquest of Lydia by Cyrus the Great of Persia. — 

Croesus \kre'-sus\ — the successor of Alyattes, and the last King of 
Lydia — was also the most distinguished. He was famed for his 
wealth. It is said that Solon, the great Athenian lawgiver, during 
his stay at the court of Croesus, was asked by the king if he did not 
consider him a happy man, and that Solon replied that life was full 
of vicissitudes and that no one was perfectly happy in this world. 
Having conquered all Asia IVIinor, Croesus formed an alliance with 



30 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Egypt and Babylon to resist the growing power of Persia under 
Cyrus the Great ; but before going to war with the Persian king, 
Croesus consulted the oracle of the god Apollo at Delphi, in Greece, 
and was told that if he, made war on the Persians he would ruin a 
great empire. The conquering King of Persia quickly invaded 
Lydia, took and burned Sardis, its capital, defeated Croesus, and 
took him prisoner ; and Lydia — blotted from the list of independent 
nations — became a province of the vast Medo-Persian Empire (B. C. 
554). Having lost his crown and empire, Croesus was not much 
comforted by the Delphic priestess's explanation that his own em- 
pire had been great and was now ruined. After his capture, Croesus 
was chained to a funeral pile to be burned alive, when Solon's say- 
ing occurred to him, and he exclaimed : " Solon ! Solon ! Solon !" 
When Cyrus learned the meaning of this exclamation, he was so 
struck with Solon's wisdom that he liberated the captive Lydian 
king, and ever afterward treated him as a friend. • 

SECTION VI.— THE MEDIAN AND MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRES. 

1. The Medes and Persians. — The Medes and Persians were kin- 
dred Aryan nations — similar in race, language, institutions, and 
religion. They originally came from the East and settled on the 
plateau of Iran — the Medes occupying the region south of the 
Caspian Sea, and the Persians the territory immediately south and 
bordering on the Persian gulf. They embraced the ancient Zend 
races, and their works were written in the ancient and sacred Zend 
language. 

2. The Median Empire under Cjaxares and its decline. — The Medes 
threw off their long dependence on Assyria about 708 B. C, made 
Ecbat'ana their capital, and subdued the kindred Persian nation; 
but Media was afterward overrun and conquered by Scythian hordes, 
who were finally driven away by the valiant king, Cyaxares — the 
founder of the great Median Empire — who extended his dominion 
by conquest in every direction. Cyaxares — as already related — 
united with Nabopolassar of Babylon in overthrowing the Assyrian 
Empire by the capture and destruction of Nineveh, and extended 
the Median Empire westward to the borders of the Lydian Empire 
in Asia Minor. As we have related, Cyaxares attempted to conquer 
Lydia, but an eclipse of the sun on the eve of a battle induced the 
two kings — Cyaxares of Media and Alyattes of Lydia — to make a 
treaty of peace, alliance, and friendship. The royal houses of 
Media, Lydia, and Babylon were united by ties of marriage and 



ANCIEMT ORIENTAL NA TIONS. 3 1 

friendship ; and the three great Asiatic empires of the time stood 
side by side in peace for "fifty years. Under Cyaxares and his son 
and successor, Astyages \as-ty'-ad-jeez\ Media rapidly increased in 
wealth, but ease and luxury wrought effeminacy and degeneracy of 
manners upon the hitherto rude, hardy, and warlike Medes. 

3. Founding- of the Medo-Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great. — 
Astyages was the last of the Median kings. His grandson, Cyrus, 
a young Persian prince, who had spent his boyhood and youth at 
the court of Astyages at Ecbatana as a hostage for the vassal king 
of Persia, made his escape ; and arousing the Persians against the 
ruling Medes, led an army into Media, defeated and dethroned 
Astyages, and transferred the supremacy from the Medes to the Per- 
sians. Thus Cyrus — afterwards surnamed the Great — founded the 
great Aledo-Persian Empire, which for two centuries was the domi- 
nant power in Asia. 

4. Conquest of Lydia and Babylon by Cyrus the Great. — His death. 
— Cyrus the Great conquered the powerful Kingdom of Lydia, in 
Asia Minor, after defeating and capturing the renowned Lydian 
king, Croesus \kr^-sics\ famed for his wealth, and after taking and 
burning Sardis, the Lydian capital. The Greek cities of Asia Minor 
were then subdued by Cyrus, who next carried the renown of the 
Persian arms to the far East, conquering Par'thia, Bac'tria, Hyrca'- 
nia, Aria'na, Sogdian'a, and a portion of Lidia. Cyrus next took 
the proud city of Babylon — the greatest of all his conquests ; and 
the Babylonian dominions were absorbed in the vast Medo-Persian 
Empire (B. C. 53S). After taking Babylon, Cyrus issued an edict 
permitting the Jews to return to Palestine. In an unfortunate expe- 
dition against the Massag'etse, a Scythian tribe to the northeast of 
the Caspian Sea, Cyrus is said to have been put to death by Thom'- 
yris, the queen of the Massag'etse, in revenge for the death of her 
son in battle with the Persian king (B. C. 530). 

5. Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. — His losses in Africa. — The 
mighty Cyrus was succeeded on the Persian throne by his son, the 
cruel and tyrannical Camby'ses, who invaded and conquered Egypt, 
defeating the last Egyptian king, Psammenitus, in the bloody battle 
of Pelusium, and putting him to a cruel death (B. C. 525). Cam- 
byses next subdued some of the African tribes, and reduced the 
Greek colony of Cyrena'ica under tribute ; but an army which he 
sent to conquer the little oasis of Siwah perished in a simoom in the 
desert, and another army which he sent against Ethio'pia almost 
perished from hunger. After a reign of nine years, Cambyses died 



2 2 " A NCIENT HIS TORY. 

from the effects of a wound which he had accidentally inflicted upon 
himself with his own sword (B. C. 521). 

6. Siuerdis. — Darius Hystaspes. — Extent of the Medo-Persian Em- 
pire. — Upon the death of Cambyses, an impostor, named Smer'dis, 
usurped the Persian throne, but the usurper soon lost his life in a 
conspiracy of the Persian nobles ; and the Persian crown passed to 
Dari'us Hystas'pes, who quelled a revolt of Babylon, severely pun- 
ishing the Babylonians, 3,000 of whom he put to death ; after which 
he engaged in a disastrous invasion of European Scythia, and also 
in an inglorious war with Greece. Under Darius Hystaspes and 
his successors the Medo-Persian Empire extended from Greece to 
India and from the deserts of Africa to Central Asia. It included 
portions of Thrace and Macedon in Europe, Egypt and other por- 
tions of Africa, and all that part of Asia embraced by modern 
Turkey, Persia, Beloochistan, Afghanistan, and Turkestan. Darius 
Hystaspes devoted more attention to the consolidation of his vast 
empire than to its enlargement. For purposes of government, he 
divided the empire into twenty provinces, called satrapies, the gov- 
ernors of which were called satraps. He established as the capitals 
of the Persian Empire, Susa in the spring, Ecbatana in the summer, 
and Babylon in the winter. His successor, the great Xerxes 
\_zer}<^ -zees\ was assassinated in his bed, after an inglorious reign. 

7. Decline and fall of the Persian Empire. — The extensive empire 
of Persia, comprising many countries held together only by mili- 
tary power and not by any harmony of interests, feelings, or insti- 
tutions, rapidly declined after the reign of Darius Hystaspes. The 
a<::quisition of wealth and the enjoyment of luxury for two centuries 
brought upon the Persians effeminacy, indolence, and the loss of 
all military virtue. After the Persian Empire had continued little 
more than two centuries it was invaded and subdued by the con- 
.quering Alexander the Great, King of Macedon ; and the last 

Persian king, Darius Codoman'nus, was murdered by his own 
officers. 

8. Character and civilization of tlie Medes and Persians. — The 
Persians were a frank and generous people, hating fraud and debt, 
and they even condemned commerce, because it involved tempta- 
tions to deceit. The education of a Persian nobleman was "to ride 
the horse, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth." Their courage 
in battle won the admiration of their enemies. Their devotion to 
their kings was carried to the utmost extreme of servility, becoming 
so great as to destroy their self-respect. The Medo-Persians — be- 



ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



33 



longing to the progressive Aryan race — excelled all other Asiatic 
people in the science of government ; and the kings knew what was 
passing in the most distant parts of their empire, by means of a host 
of spies called the King's Eyes and the King's Ears, and by the 
swift couriers who were constantly traveling over the royal roads. 
The Persians made great progress in architecture, and their gor- 
geous palaces were among the wonders of the East. The old 
palace of the Persian kings at Persep'olis — the original capital of 
Persia — was magnificent beyond description, the walls and ceilings 
of its apartments being resplendent with amber, ivory, and gold. 

9. Religion of the Medes and Persians. — The religion of the Medes 
and Persians was a monotheism, and therefore superior to the other 
religious systems of the East. Their religion was that founded by 
the ancient sage, Zoroas'ter, and explained in the sacred books of 
the Zend-Avesta, according to which there are a good spirit, 
Ormuzd, and an evil spirit, Ahritnan, which shall wage war against 
each other until the end of the world, when the good spirit shall 
triumph and the human race be rendered happy. This religion was 
represented by a powerful priesthood called the Magi, and the good 
spirit was worshipped under the form of the sun and of fire. It is 
from the arts practiced by the Magi that our word magic is derived. 

SECTION VII.— THE ANCIENT HINDOOS, OR INDIANS. 

1. Aryan settlement of India and antiquity of Hindoo civilization. — 

About 3,000 years before Christ, the ancestors of the Hindoos 

Aryans from the region north and west of India — crossed the Indus 
and settled in the Hindoo peninsula, which they eventually over- 
spread, conquering the original dark-skinned races of the peninsula,., 
and intermingling with them ; and India became one of the most 
ancient seats of civilization, the Hindoos attaining a high degree in 
art, literature, and philosophy, but their civilization at length be- 
came stationary. India was anciently divided into numerous petty 
states. The country was geographically divided by the Vindya 
mountains into two parts — Hindoostan, or the northern division, 
and the Deccan, or the southern division. 

2. Hindoo literature and arcliitecture. — India's commercial im- 
portance. — The ancient Hindoos made great progress in literature; 
and many of their writings, all in the ancient and sacred Sanskrit 
language, are 4,000 years old, and have been translated by modern 
European scholars. This ancient people also made great advance- 
ment in art and architecture, as is shown by the ruins of stately 

3 



34 



ANCIENT HI ST OR V. 



temples and grottos. The great abundance of the natural and arti- 
ficial productions of India has kept that country the grand centre 
and emporium of the maritime and caravan trade, and has made it 
a constant prey to foreign invasion and conquest. 

3. The Brahmans. — It is supposed that the first form of govern- 
ment that existed in India was that of a powerful hierarchy, and 
that the first code of laws was compiled by the priests, or BrahmanSy 
who were celebrated for their learning, and who were held in great 
reverence by all classes of Hindoos. Their laws were drawn from 
the Vedas, or sacred writings. The Vedas and the Laws of Maiiu 
were held in great reverence. 

4. Hindoo castes. — According to the Brahmanical code, the Hin- 
doos, or Indians, were divided into four distinct classes, or castes. 
The members of each caste were not allowed to intermarry or asso- 
ciate with those of any other caste. This rule has been strictly 
adhered to by the Hindoos to the present time. The first caste was 
that of the priests, or Brahmans, who possessed the chief political 
and ecclesiastical power, and were held in greater respect and ven- 
eration than the princes. The second caste was the warrior class, 
to which the princes belonged. The third caste was composed of 
the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and mechanics. The 
fourth caste was that of the servants and laborers. Every man was 
obliged to pursue his father's occupation ; and those who violated 
the rules of caste — a crime considered worse than death — became 
Pariahs, or outcasts. It is supposed by some that those wandering 
people called Gypsies are descended from the Pariahs, or outcasts. 

5. Hindoo rdiirion. — Hralinianism and Bnddliism. — The Hindoo 
religion — called Brahmanism — is a pantheism, which conceives of 
God as the soul of the universe, or as the universe itself. " In Him 
the whole universe is absorbed; from Him it issues; He is in- 
twined and interwoven with all creation." "All that exists is 
God ; whatever we smell, or taste, or see, or hear, or feel, is the 
Supreme Being." The Invisible Supreme Being manifests himself 
in three {orxns-^—B rah>na the Creator, VisJimi the Preserver, and 
Siva the Destroyer. The Hmdoos made the sun, moon, and stars 
obje( ts of adoration. The central point of Hindoo theology is the 
diOiixwwitoi metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls; according to 
whi( h the human soul is joined to earthly bodies only for purposes 
of i»iiiishment, and the soul's aim and effort are to reunite itself 
witii the Divine Spirit of the universe. The Hindoos therefore take 

.a pessimistic view of this earthly life, which they regard as a time 



ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



35 



of trial and punishment, from which man can only be released by a 
holy life, by prayer and sacrifice, by penance and purification. If 
a person neglects these duties and sinks deeper into vice and sin, 
the soul after death will enter the body of an inferior animal and 
will have to commence its wanderings afresh. About six centuries 
before Christ, a young Hindoo prince, named Sakya-Muni, Sid- 
dar'tha, or Gauta'ma, and afterwards known as the Buddha [^boo'-dhd] 
(the enlightened) — whose small kingdom was in Nepaul, in Northern 
Hindoostan — resigned his power, and becoming a hermit, devoted 
the remainder of his life to solitary meditation and dreaming about 
the miseries of this world, and founded a new pantheistic religion 
called Buddhism [^bod-dhisni], which was a social and religious 
reaction against the abuses of the old Brahmanism, as Gautama 
labored with zeal to lessen the power of the Brahmans and to ele- 
vate the masses by abolishing the distinction of castes. The 
Buddha is said to have resisted every temptation by the demon 
Alavaka to induce him to establish an earthly empire. He is be- 
lieved by his followers to have been born 550 times, and that at his 
last birth many miraculous wonders occurred. Like Christ, Gau- 
tama the Buddha left nothing in writing, and after his death his 
disciples published his teachings in the holy books of the Pitakas. 
Gautama, a thorough pessimist, looked upon all existence as an evil, 
and taught that release from the miseries of existence could only be 
attained by leading a pure, virtuous, and religious life, free from all 
vice and crime, from all evil passions and desires ; so that at death 
man can attain Nirvalna, that is, total extinction, annihilation, 
ceasing to exist. This, according to Buddhism, is the soul's aim 
and desire. If we do not lead a pure and goodly life, free from 
vice and sin, the soul will have to renew its wanderings in the 
body of some inferior animal. In order to attain Nirvana, it is 
necessary to believe in Buddha and his religious system alone ; to 
abstain from all impure thoughts and motives, all evil desires and 
passions, and all vices and crimes, such as intoxication, falsehood, 
theft, killing, and the like ; to indulge right views, thoughts, speech, 
actions, living, exertion, recollection, and meditation ; and to prac- 
tice charity, forgive enemies, return good for evil, do unto others 
as we would have others do unto us, and live at peace with our 
fellowmen. Buddhism rapidly spread through India, and its teach- 
ings of love, charity, and human equality, exerted a wonderful in- 
fluence; and although driven from India after wrestling twelve 
centuries with Brahmanism, Buddhism spread over all Eastern Asia — 



36 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

that is, among the Mongolian nations, such as Farther India, Thibet, 
Tartary, China, and Japan — and is to-day the religion of one- 
third of the human race, having more adherents than any other 
faith. Like Christianity, Buddhism has its monkish orders. 

SECTION VIII.— ANCIENT CHINA. 

1. Antiquity of Cliina. — China is one of the most ancient seats of 
civilization, and that ancient empire has existed with but little 
change to the present time. Its founder was Fohi. His successor, 
Chin-nong, invented the plow. A Chinese princess first unravelled 
the cocoons of the silk-worm, and discovered the art of making silk. 
The Chinese were entirely unknown to the Greeks, Romans, Egyp- 
tians, Hindoos, and other ancient nations; and they have always 
been an exclusive people, being entirely shut out from the rest of 
the world, and only tolerating intercourse with other nations withm 
a recent period. Their aversion to change and progress has made 
their civilization stationary, and they have been passive, exerting 
no influence whatever upon the course of the world's history. 

2. Confucius. — The most celebrated character of China was the 
great moral philosopher and teacher, Confucius \_kon-fu'-shus'], who 
flourished about five centuries before Christ. Confucius lectured 
to his countrymen on the subjects of virtue and morality, teaching 
the virtues of truth, honesty, purity, obedience to law, sobriety, 
charity, and respect for others. He — as well as Buddha and Christ 
— taught the maxim : Do unto others as you would have others do 
unto you. Confucius had many disciples and followers, who at- 
tended his lectures and adopted his precepts. His works are still 
held in the highest reverence by the Chinese, and form an important 
part in Chinese education. 

3. Tlie Great WaU.— In 215 B. C. the Great Wall was built by 
the Emperor Ching-Wang to prevent Tartar inroads into China. 
This wall — one of the Seven Wonders of the World — was 1500 miles 
long, forty-five feet high, and eighty feet wide; and is now mostly 
in ruins. Many dynasties have occupied the throne of China, and 
the country was several times conquered by the Mogul Tartars dur- 
ing the Middle Ages; and in 1644 A. D., the present Mantchoo- 
Tartar dynasty usurped the throne by right of conquest, after a 
twenty-seven years' war. 



RISE OF GREECE. 37 

CHAPTER II. 
RISE OF GREECE. 

SECTION I.— GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT GREECE. 

1. Extent of Ancient Greece. — Ancient Greece comprised, in addi- 
tion to modern Greece, the whole northern part of the peninsula 
and some of the territory beyond, which now constitutes a part of 
the Turkish Empire. Ancient Greece was about 400 miles long, 
and was divided into three parts. 

2. Peloponnesus, or Southern Greece. — The southern part — the 
peninsula anciently called the Peloponne'sus, but now styled the 
More' a — was about 140 miles long; and included the states of 
Laco'nia, Ar'golis, Achse'a, Arca'dia, El'is, and Messe'nia. The 
chief city of this section was Sparta, the capital of Laconia, or 
Lacedse'mon. 

3. Hellas, or Central Greece. — The middle part of Greece — called 
Hel'las — was less in extent than the Peloponnesus ; and embraced 
the states of At'tica, Boeo'tia, Euboe'a, Do'ris, Pho'cis, Lo'cris, ^to'- 
lia, and Acarnan'ia. The chief cities of this section were Athens, 
the capital of Attica, and Thebes, the capital of Boeotia. 

4. Northern Greece. — The northern part — not included in modern 
Greece, but now forming a part of the Turkish Empire — contained 
the states of Thes'saly and Epi'rus. North of this section was Mac'e- 
don, or Macedo'nia. Thrace was east of Macedon. Mount Olym'- 
pus, the residence of the gods and the goddesses, was in Thessaly. 

SECTION II.— GREEK RELIGION. 

1. Grecian theog-ony. — Division of the Universe by Zeus. — Accord- 
ing to the Grecian theogony, or history of the gods, first came 
Chaos, a shapeless and formless mass, the consort of Darkness, 
which produced Vranus, or Heaven, and G(^a, or Earth. Heaven 
married Earth, and from this union sprang Cro'nos, or Sat'urn, and 
the Ti'tans, a race of giants. The Titans made war on Cronos and 
dethroned him. His son Zeus \zoos'\ restored him to his throne, but 
afterwards deposed him and reigned in his stead. Then a fierce 
struggle ensued between Zeus and the Titans, or giants. The Titans 
attempted to storm the skies, but were subdued and destroyed by 
Zeus, who buried them in the abyss of the earth beneath. Zeus 
then erected his throne on Mount Olympus, in Thessaly, and divided 



38 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

the dominion of the universe with his brothers Pose'idon and Pyto, 
reserving heaven for himself, and assigning the sea to Poseidon and 
the infernal regions to Pluto. 

2. The twelve great deities. — The twelve great Grecian deities — 
six gods and six goddesses — resided on the summit of Mount Olym- 
pus, in Thessaly. The top of this mountain was shrouded in a per- 
petual vapor, which was believed to veil these gods from the sight 
of mortals. These twelve deities formed the council of the great 
gods, presided over by Zeus. The following were the twelve great 
Grecian divinities. We will give both the Greek and the Latin or 
Roman names of these deities, giving the Greek names first. 

1. Zeus, oxju'piter — called also Jove, or the Thunderer — was the 
king of gods and men, and the father of all the other gods. When- 
ever a cloud sailed over the sky, it was believed to be the chariot 
of Zeus. Whenever it thundered, the Greeks believed that Zeus 
was angry, and was hurling his bolts. 

2. Pose'idon, or Nep'tune, the god of the sea, was a brother of 
Zeus. When storms arose on the sea and the billows raged, it was 
believed that Poseidon was showing his anger. Poseidon was also 
supposed to manifest his rage in earthquakes. 

3. Apol'lo, the sun-god, was the god of poetry, music, and elo- 
quence. 

4. A'res \d-reez\ or Mars, the god of war, was believed to be 
always present in battle. 

5. Her'mes \_her'-meez], or Mer'cury, the herald of the gods, was 
the god of commerce and wealth. 

6. HephvEs'tus, or Vulcati, the god of fire and the useful arts, 
was reixesented as a blacksmith. He was believed to have his forges 
and anvils under the volcano of .^tna, in Sicily ; and when the 
volcano was in a -state of eruption, the Greeks believed that Hephaes- 
tus was forging thunderbolts for Zeus. 

7. He'ra, ox Ju'tw, the queen of heaven, was the wife and sister 
of Zeus. 

8. Athe'na, or Miner' va — called also Pal' las — was the goddess 
of wisdom and the favorite daughter of Zeus. 

9. Aphrodi'te, or Ve'rtus, the goddess of love and beauty, was 
also the goddess of laughter, grace, and pleasure. E'ros, or Cu'pid, 
was her son. 

10. Ar'temis, or Dian'a, the moon-goddess and the twin-sister 
of Apollo, was also the goddess of hunting. There was a famous 
temple to Artemis at Eph'esus, in Asia Minor. 



RISE OF GREECE. 39 

11. Deme'ter, or Ce'res, was the goddess of corn and harvests 

12. Hes'tia, or Ves'ta, was the goddess of the domestic hearth. 

3. Inferior eartlily deities. — Besides the great gods and goddesses 
just named, there was an indefinite number of inferior deities be- 
lieved to inhabit every field, river, and forest; and all nature was 
supposed to be Avorking through a number of personal agents. 
/£o' lus, the god of the winds, was believed to show his anger in 
storms and tempests. Zephyr manifested herself in gentle breezes. 
Isis showed her presence in the rainbow. Eos, or Auro'ra, the 
goddess of the morning, opened the gates of the east by lifting the 
dark veil of night and pouring dew upon the grass and flowers ; thus 
announcing every morning the approach of her great brother Apollo, 
or the sun. Pan, the god of huntsmen and shepherds, and the 
Fauns, ruled in the fields. The Dryads and Hama-dryads dwelt in 
the forests. Flora was the goddess of flowers and gardens. Pomd- 
na was the goddess of fruit-trees. The Muses and Graces were the 
inspirers of poetry and beauty. Diony' sus or Bac'chus, was the god 
of wine and drunkards, and his rites were celebrated with the wild- 
est frenzy and riotous feasts. Momus was the god of pleasantry and 
folly. Comiis was the god of revelry and feasting. Tet^ minus was 
the god of boundaries, and his duty was to see that no one en- 
croached on the land of his neighbor. As'trea, the goddess of 
justice, weighed the actions of men. Neme'sis, the goddess of ven- 
geance, acted in punishment of crime. The Eumen'ides, or Furies, 
pursued the guilty with the pangs of remorse. . 

4. Marine and infernal deities. — Poseidon, the god of the sea, was 
surrounded by his wife Amphitri'te, Thetis, the Nereids, and the 
Tri'tons. Ocea'nus was an ancient sea-god. Atlas was an ancient 
god, believed to have borne the world on his shoulders. Plu'to was 
the god of the infernal regions, and Persephone, or Proserpine, was 
his wife. The entrance to the infernal regions was guarded by the 
three-headed dog Cerbe'rus. Mi'nos, JEa'cus, and Rhadamatithus, 
were the judges of the souls of the dead. Phi'tus was the god of 
riches. Somnus was the god of sleep, and abode in a dark cave, 
from which dreams passed in and out. Morpheus was his chief 
minister. There were also monsters — the offspring of the gods — 
such as the Happies, the Gors^ofis, Cerberus, the Centaurs, the 
Furies, the Fates, the Si'rens, and the Dragon of the Hesper'ides. 

5. Greek oracles. — The Greeks believed the will of the gods to be 
made known by oracles. Zeus was believed to speak in the rustling 



40 



ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 



of leave? of the sacred oaks, and his utterances were interpreted by- 
priests or priestesses. The most famous oracle of Zeus was that at 
Dodo'no. The most celebrated of all the Grecian oracles was that 
of Apollo at Delphi. A crevice in the centre of the floor of the 
temple was supposed to emit a gas, believed to be the breath of 
Apollo. In seeking to learn the will of the god, the priestess Pyth'ia 
seated herself over this crevice, and the fumes from it were supposed 
to inspire her. She made known the will of Apollo to attendant 
priests, who communicated the revelation to the inquirer. 

6. Greek worsliip, rites, aud belief in a futtire state. — The Greek 

worship of the gods and goddesses consisted of prayers and thanks- 
givings, and sacrifices or sin-offerings, such as animals, or fruits, 
vines, honey, milk, and frankincense. Public worship was con- 
ducted by the priests in the open air, on mountain-tops, in groves 
and forests, or in temples, particularly on the occasion of the great 
national festivals. The Eleushiian Mysteries were ceremonies per- 
formed in secret at Eleu'sis, in honor of Demeter and Persephone. 
These secret ceremonies were only performed by those who had been 
regularly initiated in them. It was a crime to even speak of them 
to the uninitiated. Those who engaged in them were regarded as 
being under the special protection of the gods. The Greeks believed 
in a state of immortality, and in future rewards and punishments, 
according to the actions of people in this world. The departed 
were brought by Hermes before the three judges of the lower world, 
who consigned them either to Elysium, the residence of the right- 
eous, or to Ha'des, or Tar'tarus, the place of condemnation. 

SECTION III.— PRIMEVAL GREECE AND THE HEROIC AGE. 

1. The Pelasgiaus and the Hellenes. — The first inhabitants of 
Greece were the Pelas'gians, who were savages. They lived in 
caves, fed on roots and acorns, and clothed themselves with the 
skins of beasts. At an uncertain period, the Helle'nes, an Asiatic 
people, found their way into Greece, and drove away or intermin- 
gled with the Pelasgians. The Hellenes were divided into four 
tribes — the Do'rians, lo'nians, Achoe'ans, and ^o'lians. The Pelas- 
gians and the Hellenes were pure Aryans. The Greeks called them- 
selves Hellenes, and their country Hel' las. The names Greeks, or 
Grecians, and Greece, were originated by the Romans. 

2. Hercules. — Theseus. — Argonautic Expedition. — ^Trojan War. — 
The fabulous characters of the Heroic Age were Her'cules, the great 
national hero of Greece; The'seus, the civilizer of Attica; and 



RISE OF GREECE. 41 

Mi'nos, the Cretan lawgiver. The famous Argonautic Expedition, 
undertaken by Jason of Thessaly, to recover the Golden Fleece, 
which had been carried to Colchis, and the Trojan War, so cele- 
brated in Homer's Iliad, are the great legendary events of the Heroic 
Age. Paris, son of Priam, King of Troy, carried off Helen, the 
beautiful wife of Menela'us, King of Sparta ; whereupon the Greek 
princes united in an expedition against Troy, Agamem'non, brother 
of Menelaus, commanding the expedition, assisted by Achilles {a-kif- 
leez\ of Thessaly and Ulys'ses of Ithaca (B. C. 1194)- During the 
ten years' siege of Troy, which followed, many valiant exploits were 
performed by heroes on each side, chief of which was the killing of 
the Trojan Hector by the Grecian Achilles. Troy was finally taken 
by a stratagem of Ulysses, who moved a wooden horse filled with 
Grecian soldiers into the city, the soldiers getting out of the wooden 
horse during the night and opening the gates of the city to the 
Greeks, who then entered the city and razed it to the ground 
(B. C. 1 184). 

3. Return of the Heraclidae, and other migrations. — About the year 
1 100 B. C, the Dorians, led by the descendants of Hercules, mi- 
grated from the mountainous country of Doris, to the Pelopon- 
nesus, of which they took possession, expelling or enslaving the 
former inhabitants. This is known as The Returti of the HeracW - 
dee. Corinth, Argolis, Sicyon, Messenia, and Laconia were gradu- 
ally subdued ; and thus the whole fate of the Peloponnesus was 
changed. The Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus led to other 
important migrations of Grecian tribes. Thus the lonians settled 
in Attica and Central Greece, while the islands of the ^gean and 
the coasts of Asia Minor, Thrace, and Southern Italy were peopled 
by lonians, Dorians, and .<^olians. 

4. Grecian Eepublics. — Auipliictyouic Council. — After Codrus, the 
last King of Athens, had patriotically sacrificed his life in a war 
against the Dorians (B. C. 1068), the Athenians abolished mon- 
archy altogether and established an aristocratic republic, the chief 
magistrates of which were called Archons \ar'kons\. In the process 
of time, all the Grecian states abolished royalty and established 
republican governments. A celebrated institution which arose at 
this early period was the Amphic' tyonic Council, composed of dele- 
gates from twelve states of Greece. The objects of this council 
were to settle religious and political disputes among the different 
Grecian states, and to guard the chosen spot of Apollo at Delphi 
against sacrilege. 



42 



ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 



5. OljTiipic Festival. — Other national festivals. — The almost con- 
stant wars which distracted the Hellenic race greatly retarded the 
progress of Grecian civilization. To enable the Greeks to meet 
every four years on friendly terms, the celebrated Olyinpic Festival 
was established, consisting of various athletic exercises, such as run- 
ning, jumping, wrestling, throwing the discus, etc.; also compo- 
sitions in music and poetry. The victors in the Olympic games 
were crowned with olive wreaths, which were regarded by the 
Greeks as a very high honor. The establishment of the Olympic 
Festival took place 776 B. C., and was the point from which the 
Greeks thereafter reckoned time. The Olympic games were cele- 
brated every four years, or Olym'piad (as such a period of time was 
thereafter called), at Olympia, in Elis. There were three other 
Greek national festivals besides the Olympic — namely the PytHian, 
the IstHmian, and the Numcz'an. 

6. Greek Colonies. — Many of the former inhabitants of the Pelo- 
ponnesus who were expelled by the Dorians and the Heraclidse 
crossed the ^ge'an sea into Asia Minor, where they established 
flourishing colonies. Thus the .^o'lians founded the twelve tEo- 
lian states, which were afterwards united into the ^olian Confed- 
ef-acy; and the lo'nians settled the Ionian colonies, which in the 
course of time were formed into the Ionian Confederacy. Greek 
colonies were established in Cyprus, Crete, on the shores of the 
Eux'ine (now Black) sea, the Propon'tus (now Sea of Marmora), the 
Hellespont (now Dar'danelles), in Thrace and Macedonia. The 
city of Byzan'tium (now Constantinople), founded by By'zas in the 
year 606 B. C, was the most prosperous of the Greek colonies in 
this quarter. In Northern Africa was the flourishing city of Cyre'ne, 
corresponding to the modern Barca. The cities of Syr'acuse and 
Messa'na in Sicily were established by the Grecians, while in 
Southern Italy the number of Grecian settlements was so great that 
they were together named Magna Grce'eia (Great Greece). 

SECTION IV.— SPARTA AND ATHENS DURING THE PERIOD OF 
THE LAWGIVERS. 

1. Sparta under the Laws of Lycurgus. — In the ninth century before 
Christ flourished Lycurgus, the celebrated Spartan lawgiver, who 
reformed the govermcnt, laws, and social institutions of Sparta. 
The Laws of • Lycurgus were designed to perpetuate the primitive 
simplicity and hardihood of the Spartan people, by preventing the 
spread of luxury, and by educating the Spartan youth so as to make 



RISE OF GREECE. 



43 



brave and patriotic warriors. The Spartan youth were taught to be 
sober, cunning, persevering, brave, insensible to hardships, patient 
in suffering, obedient to their superiors, and unyielding in their 
devotion to their country. Great care was taken for their physical 
education, while their mental culture was neglected. To make the 
Spartan youth abhor drunkenness, the Spartan slaves were made 
drunk. To make them cunning in war, they were encouraged to 
steal provisions from the public tables ; but were severely whipped 
if detected, not for theft, but for their awkwardness in not escaping 
detection. When an infant was born it was taken to certain public 
officers for examination ; and if found deformed, it was considered 
of no use to the state, and was destroyed. At the age of six years 
all children were taken from their parents and educated in public. 
All the landed property was divided equally among the free citizens 
of Sparta. To prevent luxury, foreign commerce and useless arts 
were forbidden. To prevent the hoarding up of money, gold and 
silver as money were forbidden, only iron money being used, a small 
value being attached to a large quantity. An exclusive policy was 
carried out toward other states. To prevent the Spartans from 
being corrupted by intercourse with their neighbors, the Spartan 
people were not allowed to travel abroad ; neither were foreigners 
allowed to spend any time in Sparta. All Spartans were required 
to eat only at the public tables, and not at home or in private ; each 
Spartan being required to furnish a certain amount of provisions 
monthly for the public use \ and only this plainest and least relishing 
food being allowed. All manual labor was performed by the Helots, 
or slaves. The government of Sparta was vested in two hereditary 
tary kings, -a Senate of twenty-eight members elected by the nobles, 
popular assemblies, and five magistrates called Ephori \ef'-o-ri\. 
The kings possessed only limited power, but presided over the Sen- 
ate and commanded the armies in time of war. The Ephori were 
elected yearly, and were invested with considerable authority, being 
empowered to punish by flogging even the Senators and kings, to 
control the public assemblies, and to dictate the policy of peace oi 
war. All Senators were required to be at least sixty years of age. 
After inducing the Spartans to swear to observe his laws until his 
return, Lycurgus left Sparta never to return; and his countrymen 
— bound by their oath — were obliged to keep his laws forever. 

2. Spartan character. — Lycurgus introduced among his country- 
men a short but forcible style of expression — a style still called 
laco?iic, from Laconia, the Spartan territory. The Laws of Lycur- 



44 



ANCIENT HIS TOR V. 



gus — which the Spartans observed for five centuries — made that 
people the greatest warriors of Greece. The Spartan laws did not 
allow a Spartan soldier to flee before an enemy, and the advice of 
Spartan mothers to their sons when they departed for the battle- 
field was: "Return with your shield or upon it." No Spartan 
mother would deign to look at her son who had disgraced himself 
by cowardice or treason to his country. But the Spartans became 
only a nation of warriors. They produced no philosphers, poets, 
orators, historians, or artists. 

3. Tlie Messeniau Wars. — The effects of the Laws of Lycurgus upon 
the Spartans were soon brought to a test in two wars with their 
neighbors, the Messenians. The first of these wars lasted twenty 
years (B. C. 743-723), and ended in the humiliation of the Messe- 
nians. The second war lasted seventeen years (B. C. 685-668), 
and resulted in the complete subjugation of the Messenians, and 
their dispersion into various parts of Greece. Sparta also subdued 
the Arcadians and the Argives, and extended her supremacy over 
the whole of the Peloponnesus. 

4. Athens uuder the Laws of Drjico and Solon. — Athens suffered for 
centuries from domestic dissensions, caused by the mutual hatred of 
the three classes — nobles, merchants, and peasants — and by the 
oppression of the poor by the rich. The nobles had become very 
wealthy, while the great mass had been reduced to extreme poverty 
and wretchedness. The poor had been compelled to borrow money 
at exorbitant rates of interest from the rich, and when a poor debtor 
was unable to discharge his obligations, his property was seized, and 
he and his family were imprisoned or enslaved by his creditor. To 
end this state of anarchy, Draco, who flourished in the seventh 
century before Christ, framed a code of laws so severe that it was 
said they were written with blood, not with ink, punishing even the 
most trifling offences with death ; but this barbarous code was soon 
abolished. In the sixth century before Christ, a more humane and 
equitable code of laws was framed for Athens by the wise lawgiver, 
Solon. Solon's laws abolished enslavement and imprisonment for 
debt, reduced the rate of interest, cancelled all the debts of the 
poorer classes, released all prisoners for debt, and rej^ealed all of 
Draco's Laws except the one declaring murder punishable with death. 
Solon divided the citizens of Athens into four classes according to 
their yearly incomes. The highest class held the highest offices and 
paid the largest amount of taxes ; the second and third classes held 
the remaining offices and paid the remaining taxes; while the low- 



mSE OF GREECE. 45 

est class held no ofifices and paid no taxes. Solon's Laws vested the 
government of Athens in a Senate or Council of 400, afterward 500, 
members, elected yearly; an assembly of the people; and a chief 
magistrate called Archon {a/-kon'\, with eight inferior executive 
officers also called archons. The chief court of justice was the 
Areop'agus, the members of which inspected education and morals, 
in addition to administering the laws. Solon's constitution re- 
mained in force, with slight mterruption, for five centuries, and laid 
the foundation of Athenian greatness. 

5. Usurpation of Pisistratiis. — Hippias and Hipparclius. — In 560 B. 

C, the government of Athens was usurped by Pisis'tratus, who, not- 
withstanding the means by which he had acquired his power, gov- 
erned Athens wisely and with mildness for thirty-three years, patron- 
ized literature and art, opened a public library, and collected the 
poems of Homer. At his death, Pisistratus transmitted his authority 
to his two sons, Hip'pias and Hipparchus \Jiip-par'-kus\ — called the 
Pisisfratidce \_pi-sis-trat' e-de\ — who also governed for some years 
with moderation and justice ; but after Hipparchus had been assas- 
sinated by two young Athenians, Harmo'dius and Aristogi'ton, Hip- 
pias ruled alone with great cruelty and tyranny for four years, until 
510 B. C, when the Athenians expelled him and his family from 
Athens, and the Athenian Republic was restored. Hippias found 
refuge at the court of the Persian king, Dari'us Hystas'pes. 

6. Athens under Clisthenes. — Establislunent of the Ostracism. — 

After the expulsion of Hippias, Athens, under the patriotic states- 
man, Clisthenes \_klis' -the-neez\, became a pure democracy, the 
suffrage being extended to all classes. Under the blessings of 
political equality, and impelled by patriotism, all classes, rich and 
poor, felt an equal interest in the welfare and greatness of the state ; 
and Athens, with her free institutions, entered upon a new and 
glorious career. At this time arose the celebrated institution of the 
Ostracism, by which any citizen could be banished for ten years, 
without a trial, or even without any formal accusation, but simply by 
a vote of the people, each citizen writing on a shell the name of the 
individual whom he desired to have banished, and 6,000 votes be- 
ing required against a person to determine his condemnation. This 
institution was adopted to prevent any ambitious person usurping 
the authority of the state in future, and it was efficacious. 



40 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

SECTION v.— EARLY GREEK POETRY AND PHILOSOPHY. 

1. Early Greek Poetry. — Homer and Hesiod. — Homer, the father 
of poetry and the great national poet of Greece, was an Ionian 
Greek of Asia Minor, who flourished in the ninth century before 
Christ. He led a sad and wandering life, and became blind in his 
old age. His two great epics were the Il'iad, which described the 
Trojan War, and the Od'yssey, which recounted the adventures of 
Ulysses after the fall of Troy. Hesiod — another great Greek epic 
poet — lived a century after Homer, in Boeotia, where he tended 
his flocks on the slopes of Mt. Helicon, sacred to the Muses. He 
described the homely rustic scenes with which he was familiar, his 
chief poems being Works and Days, consisting mostly of precepts 
of ordinary life, and Theogony, which described the origin of the 
world, and of gods and men. 

2. Lyric poetry. — Tyrtseus and Sappho. — Jisop, the fabulist. — After 
Homer and Hesiod, Grecian lyric poetry — which at first consisted 
of cheerful songs — took the place of the epic poetry of the earlier 
period. The Athenian Tyrt^'us, the first great Greek lyric poet, 
by his patriotic odes, aroused the martial ardor of the Spartans, 
whose armies he commanded in the first war against the Messenians, 
Other lyric poets were Terpan'der, and Alc^'us of Lesbos, Alc'- 
MAN of Sparta, and Mimner'mus and Anac'reon of Ionia, in Asia 
Minor. Sappho \_saf'-fo\ of Lesbos, a famous lyric poetess — called 
the Tenth Muse — was celebrated for her songs of love, and com- 
mitted suicide by drowning. Archilo'chus of Paros was a great 
satirical poet. Thespis of Athens was the first Greek dramatic poet, 
.^'sop — who had once been a Phrygian slave and flourished at the 
court of the great Lydian king, Croesus — was celebrated for his 
fables. 

3. riiilosopliy. — Tliales, Pjtha^oras, and Xenoplianes. — In the sixth 
century before Christ Greek philosophy arose. The first Grecian. 
philosopher (^philosophos, lover of wisdom), was Thales \ihd-leez\ of 
Miletus, in Asia Minor — the greatest of the Seven Wise Men and 
the founder of the lo' nic school of philosophy. His immediate suc- 
cessors m the same school were Anax'iman'der and Anaximenes 
\an-ax' -e-7ne' -neez\. The greatest of all the early Grecian philos- 
ophers was Pythag'oras of Samos, who spent the last forty years 
of his life in Southern Laly, where he founded the sect of the 
Pyihagofe'ans, who led a stern and moral life, had all their exercises 
and meals in common, and practiced themselves in music and 
mathematics. Pythagoras taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, 



GREECE'S FLOURISHING PERIOD. 47 

or transmigration of souls. Another great philosopher of this period 
was Xenophanes \ze-nof -a-7ieez\ — founder of the Eleat'ic sect in 
Sicily — who lived to the great age of one hundred years. 

4. Tlie Seren Wise Men of Greece. — The Seven Wise Men of Greece 
— all cotemporaries, who flourished in the sixth century before 
Christ — were the philosopher, Thales of Miletus; the great law- 
giver, So'lon of Athens; Perian'der of Corinth; Chi'lo of Sparta; 
Cleob'ulus of Lyndus; Bi'as of Prienne; and Pit'tacus of Mitylene. 
On two occasions these seven sages met together. The Seven Wise 
Men sought to enlighten and improve mankind by disseminating a 
number of moral truths and precepts in the form of maxims and 
proverbs. 

CHAPTER III. 
GREECE'S FLOURISHING PERIOD. 

SECTION I.— THE-PERSIAN WAR (B. C. 490-449.) 

1. Beginning of the Persian War. — The Greek cities of Asia Minor, 
which had been conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, endeavored 
to throw off the Persian yoke about 495 B. C; and were aided in 
their revolt by the Athenians, because the Persian king, Darius Hys- 
tas'pes, had insolently demanded that the Athenians should recall 
and restore the exiled Hippias to his former power in Athens. The 
Greeks took and burned the city of Sardis, but the revolted cities 
were again reduced under the Persian dominion. In revenge for 
the burning of Sardis, the Persian king, Dari'us Hystaspes, resolved 
upon the conquest of all Greece. A large Medo- Persian army under 
Mardo'nius subdued Thrace and Macedonia, but soon returned to 
Asia Minor. 

2. Persian inyasion of Greece. — King Darius Hystaspes again as- 
sembled large armies for the invasion and conquest of Greece. 
Heralds were sent to the Greek cities to demand earth and water as 
symbols of submission. This demand was complied with by the 
smaller Grecian states ; but Athens and Sparta treated the Persian 
heralds with the greatest cruelty, throwing them into deep wells, 
and telling them to take there their earth and water. In the year 
490 B. C, a Medo-Persian army of 120,000 men, under Da'tis and 
Artapher'nes, landed in Greece, conquered several Greek islands, 
destroyed the city of Ere'tria, marched into Attica, and advanced 
to the plain of Mar'athon, about twenty miles northeast from Athens. 



48 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

3. Battle of Marathon. — An Athenian army of only 10,000 men, 
assisted by 1,000 Platcc'ans, marched to Marathon to attack the 
Medo-Persian army of more than 100,000 men. Under the direc- 
tion of the Athenian general Miltiades \inil-ti'-a-deez\, was fought 
the memorable battle of Marathon, in which the Athenians gained 
a most glorious victory (B. C. 490). After having suffered immense 
losses, the defeated Persian hosts fled in haste and confusion from 
the field, and took refuge in their ships. Among the killed on the 
Persian side was Hippias, the expelled tyrant of Athens. 

4. Disgrace aud death of Miltiades. — Miltiades was now regarded 
as the savior of Greece, but his fickle countrymen soon treated him 
with the basest ingratitude. For having failed in an attempt to con- 
quer the island of Pa'ros, he was condemned to pay a fine of fifty 
talents, and to be cast into prison, where he died of a wound which 
he had received at Paros. The fine was finally paid by his son 
Cimon \si -moi{\. 

5. Aristides and Themistocles. — After the death of Miltiades, the 
two most remarkable men of Athens were Aristides \ar-is-ti' -deez\ 
and Themistocles [///(?-;;///-/(?-/V^;s], both of whom, though opposed 
to each other in everything else, labored alike for the greatness and 
welfare of their country. Aristides was entirely devoid of personal 
ambition, and was desirous only for the public welfare. Themisto- 
cles, howevar, wished to make Athens great and powerful in order 
that he might win for himself an imperishable fame. Themistocles, 
who was bold, artful, and unscrupulous, at length caused the more 
virtuous and conscientious Aristides to be banished by ostracism. 
Themistocles caused the Athenian navy to be strengthened and in- 
creased, and in a short time Athens was mistress of the seas. 

6. Fornxidahle invasion of Greece by Xerxes. — King Darius Hys- 
taspes died while making preparations for a second invasion of 
Greece ; but his plans were executed by his son and successor, 
Xerxes \zerk' -seez\ who led an army of two millions of fighting men 
into Greece, in the year 480 B. C, ten years after the battle of 
Marathon. 

7. Battle of Thermopylae. — When the immense hosts of the Per- 
sians arrived at the narrow pass of Thermop'ylae, they found 8,000 
Greeks, under the Spartan king Leon'idas, ready to resist them. 
Xerxes sent a herald to the Greeks, ordering them to lay down their 
arms. Leonidas replied: "Come and take them." For several 
days, the Persians endeavored to force their way through the pass 
of Thermopylae, when, for a large bribe, a traitor from the Grecian 



GREECE'S FLOURISHrNG PERIOD. 



49 



army showed them a secret path over the mountains. When Leoni- 
das heard of this treachery, he sent away all his troops, excepting 
300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, with whom he resolved to die, 
rather than flee from the enemy. The little band of Grecians fought 
with the courage of desperation, until all but one of their number 
had been slain (B. C. 480). Thus perished Leonidas and his brave 
band, winning for themselves an imperishable fame. The spot 
where they fell was afterwards marked by a monument, with the 
following inscription : " Go, stranger, and tell to the Lacedsemo'- 
nians that we died here in obedience to their laws." 

8. Burning' of Athens. — Battle of Salamis, Platoica, and Mycale. — 
After the battle of Thermopylae, the Persians ravaged Attica and 
burned Athens, after it had been abandoned by its inhabitants. 
During the same year (B. C. 480), occurred the famous sea-fight of 
Sal'amis, in which the Persian fleet was thoroughly annihilated by 
the Grecian fleet ; and King Xerxes fled with the utmost haste from 
Greece with a large part of his army, leaving 300,000 men under 
Mardo'nius in Greece. In the following year (B. C. 479), the Per- 
sians were defeated and Mardonius was killed by the Greeks in the 
decisive battle of Platae'a, the Persians losing 200,000 in killed ; 
and on the same day the Persian navy was annihilated by the Gre- 
cian fleet off the promontory of Mycale \_mik-a-le\ on the coast of 
Asia Minor, Tigranes \Ji-grd-neez\ the Persian admiral, and 40,000 
of his men being slain. In consequence of the Persian disasters, 
the Persians evacuated Greece, but the war continued thirty years 
longer in the Medo -Persian dominions. 

9. Gfrecian conqnests. — Battle of Eiiryinedon. — Peace with Persia. — 
The island of Cy'prus and the city of Byzan'tium (now Constantino- 
ple) were wrested from the Persians by the Greeks ; and in the year 
469 B. C., the Greeks, under the Athenian leader Cimon, inflicted a 
crushing defeat upon the Persian army and navy, on the river Eury- 
me'don, in Asia Minor, 200 of the Persian ships being taken and 
the rest destroyed, while the Persian land force was entirely cut to 
pieces. Twenty years later (B. C. 449), a treaty of peace was con- 
cluded, by which the King of Persia acknowledged the independence 
of the Greek cities of Asia Minor. 

SECTION II.— SUPREMACY OF ATHENS AND AGE OF PERICLES. 

1. Fortification of Athens. — Banishment and death of Theniistocles. 

— During the Persian War, Theniistocles caused Athens to be re- 
built and surrounded by a strong wall, and the harbor of Pirte'us to 
4 



5 o ANCIENT HIS TOR V. 

be formed, which was afterwards connected with Athens by a double 
wall ; thus arousing the jealousy of the Spartans. About the same 
time, the fame of Themistocles had aroused the envy of numerous 
enemies among his own countrymen, who caused the ambitious 
statesman to be banished by ostracism for ten years ; whereupon he 
went to the court of the King of Persia, where he was honorably 
received ; but when the Persian king wanted him to aid the Persians 
to conquer Greece, he poisoned himself, rather than prove a traitor 
to his country. 

2. Earthquake at Sparta. — Rebellion of the Spartan Helots and 
Messeiilans. — In the year 464 B. C, Sparta was destroyed by an 
earthquake. The next year (B. C. 463^, the Spartan Hel'ots, or 
slaves, and the Messenians, took up arms to regain their freedom ; 
but after a war of ten years they were reduced to submission, and 
were permitted to remove with their famiUes to the sea-port town 
of Naupac'tus, in the state of Locris, on the northern shores of the 
Corinthian gulf (B. C. 453). Sparta was soon again rebuilt. 

3. Athens luider Aiistides, Cimon, and Pericles. — After the banish- 
ment of Themistocles, the destinies of Athens were controlled by 
Aristides, who had in the meantime been recalled from his exile. 
After the death of Aristides, the chief direction of affairs was en- 
trusted to Cimon. After Cimon's death, the affairs of Athens were 
conducted by Pericles \^pe}-'-e-kleez\ under whom Athens attained 
the highest pinnacle of wealth, power, splendor, and refinement. 
The Athenian navy ruled the seas, and island after island in the 
-^gean sea was compelled to acknowledge the sway of Athens. 

4. Wars of Athens with Sparta and Tliebes — In the meantime, 
Athens became involved in wars with Sparta, Thebes, and other 
■Grecian cities. The Athenians were defeated by the Spartans in a 
sanguinary battle; but they afterwards gained a brilliant victory 
over the Thebans, which restored the supremacy of Athens, and 

■ closed the contest for a short time. 

SECTION III.— THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR (B. C. 431-404). 

1. War between Athens and Corinth. — The Pelopoimesian War. — The 

.: general peace of Greece was soon again disturbed by a war between 

Athens and Corinth, which at length became a general Grecian 

war. When Corinth became involved in a war with Corcy'ra, one 

' of her colonies, Athens assisted Corcyra. Soon afterward, Potidse'a, 

. a Corinthian colony tributary to Athens, revolted, and was aided 

by Corinth. Sparta and most of the other Peloponnesian states 



GREE CE' S FLO URTSHING PERIOD. 5 1 

joined Corinth in the war, thus giving rise to the Peloponnesian 
War, Avhich ravaged Greece for twenty-seven years (B. C. 431-404). 

2. Progress of the war. — Plague at Atlieus. — Death of Pericles. — In 

the year 431 B. C, the Spartan king Archidamus \ar-ke-da -miis\, 
with 6,000 Peloponnesian troops, invaded and ravaged Attica; 
while the Athenian fleet devastated tli^ Peloponnesian coasts. The 
next year (B. C. 430), a fearful plague broke out in Athens, carry- 
ing away thousands of the inhabitants, among whom was the virtu- 
ous and distinguished Pericles, whose skillful statesmanship had 
raised Athens to the summit of her renown. 

3. Keduction of Potidaea. — Fall of Plataea. — Peace of Nicias. — In the 
Peloponnesian War, both sides committed the most frightful ravages 
and cruelties. In 430 B. C, Potidae'a was reduced by the Athen- 
ians, who expelled the inhabitants; and in 427 B. C, Platas'a, an 
ally of Athens, was taken by the Spartans, after a three years' siege, 
the garrison being put to death, and the women and children being 
reduced to slavery. In 421 B. C, the '■'■ Peace of Nicias'^ put an 
end to the contest for a short time. 

4. Renewal of the Peloponnesian War. — Alcihiades. — Siege of Sjra- 
cuse. — The Peloponnesian War was soon again renewed, through the 
instrumentality of the artful Athenian demagogue, Alcibiades \al-se- 
bi'-a-deez], the wealthy and handsome nephew of Pericles. Alcibi- 
ades caused the Athenians to send an expedition against Sicily ; but 
he was soon accused of designs against the state, whereupon he went 
to the Spartans, whom he aided against his own countrymen. The 
Athenian fleet and army laid siege to the city of Syr'acuse, in Sicily ; 
but the Syracu'sans, aided by the Spartans, destroyed the Athenian 
fleet and captured the Athenian army. 

5. Fate of Alcibiades. — Revolutions in Athens. — Alcibiades now 
quarreled with the Spartans, and was recalled by his own country- 
men; but was again banished, and was finally assassinated in Asia 
Minor, through the instrumentality of the Spartans. In the mean- 
time, a revolution in Athens subverted the democratic constitution, 
and placed a Council of Four Hundred in power, but another revo- 
lution soon restored the former democratic government. 

6. Persian aid to Sparta. — Battle of iEgos-potamos. — Siege and fall 
of Athens. — Persia aided Sparta in the Peloponnesian War. The 
Athenian fleet was defeated by the Spartan fleet under Lysan'der, in 
the battle of ^'gos-pot'amos (goat's river). The Spartan army and 
navy under Lysander next laid siege to Athens, which, reduced by 
famine, was finally compelled to surrender (B. C. 404). The long 



5 2 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

walls surrounding the city were torn down; and the Athenians were 
compelled to restore all their conquests, to surrender all their vessels 
but twelve, and to join the Peloponnesian alliance. Sparta was now, 
for a time, the dominant power in Greece. 

SECTION IV.— SPARTAN AND THEBAN ASCENDENCY. 

1. The Thirty Tyrants of Athens. — The Council of Ten. — The vic- 
torious Spartans subverted the democratic constitution of Athens, 
and placed the city under the rule of thirty Athenian aristocrats — 
called the Thirty Tyrants — whose cruel and despotic rule was soon 
ended by the Athenian people, who, under the leadership of the 
patriotic Thrasyb'ulus, overthrew the Thirty Tyrants, and substi- 
tuted the Ccmncil of Ten in their stead. The Council of Ten gov- 
erned as despotically as the Thirty Tyrants had done, and were con- 
sequently deposed ; whereupon the democratic form of government 
was restored in Athens (B. C. 403). 

2. Condemnation and death of Socrates. — It was under the rule of 
the restored democracy in Athens that the immortal Socrates \_sok'- 
ra-tecz\, the wisest and most virtuous of Grecian philosophers, was 
compelled to drink the cup of poison (B... C. 399). He was un- 
justly accused of perverting and corrupting the morals of the young. 
His judges declared him guilty, and condemned him to suffer death 
by drinking poison. Socrates disdained to save himself by fleeing 
from the country, as urged by his friends ; and when the fatal 
moment arrived, he drank the poison with the cheerfulness and 
calmness of a philosopher. 

3. Retreat of the Ten Thonsand. — The Greek cities of Asia Minor 
aided Cyrus, one of the rival claimants for the Persian throne, 
against his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon [^ar-ta-zerk'-seez ne'moii\. 
In the battle of Cunax'a, near Babylon, Cyrus, at the head of 
300,000 men, defeated his brother's army of 900,000 men, but was 
killed in the moment of victory ; and his Greek auxiliaries were 
obliged to retreat two thousand miles through a hostile country. 
Under the leadership of the young Athenian Xenophon \zeii-o-fon\ 
10,000 of these Greeks, after almost incredible difficulties, and after 
a march of four months, arrived at the shores of the Euxine (now 
Black Sea), whence they made their way back to Greece. This is 
known as The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. Xenophon, who was 
one of the most celebrated of ancient historians, as well as an emi- 
nent philosopher and a disciple of Socrates, wrote an admirable 
account of this famous retreat. 



GREECE'S ELOURISHIXG PERIOD. 



53 



4. War between Sparta and Persia. — The Corinthian War. — The 

King of Persia now waged war against the Greek cities of Asia Minor, 
which were aided by the Spartan king Agesilaus \a-jes-e-ld-us\, 
who defeated the Persians near Sardis (B. C. 395); but the Persian 
king now induced Athens, Corinth, and Thebes to make war on 
Sparta. The walls of Athens were rebuilt by Persian gold ; and 
Co'non, an Athenian, was supplied with a fleet, with which he de- 
feated the Spartan navy; but the Athenians, Thebans, and Corin- 
thians were defeated by the Spartans under Agesilaus in the battle 
of Corone'a (B. C. 394). 

5. Peace of Antalcidas. — The Persian Artaxerxes and the Spartan 
Antal'cidas arranged a treaty of peace, called the Peace of Antalci- 
das (B. C. 387) — which was readily ratified by all the parties en- 
gaged in the war — the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the island of 
Cyprus being surrendered to the King of Persia, who obtained a 
controlling voice in Grecian affairs. 

6. Spartan seizure of the Cadniaea, and aristocracy in Thebes. — 
Tlie Thebau War. — Sparta next .conquered the cities of Mantine'a 
and Olynthus; and a Spartan army seized the Cadmce'a, the Theban 
citadel, and established an aristocratic government in Thebes. 
Four years later, the Theban people, led by Pelop'idas, rose in re- 
volt, put their oppressors to death, and forced the Spartan garrison 
to surrender. War between Thebes and Sparta followed. Athens 
at first sided with Thebes, but afterwards took the part of the Spar- 
tans. Through the abilities of her great and worthy general, 
Epam'inondas, Thebes became the leading state of Greece. 

7. Battles of Lenctra and Mantinea. — End of Greece's g'lorious 
period. — Epaminondas, with 6,000 Thebans, defeated 20,000 Spar- 
tans in the battle of Leuctra, in which the Spartan king Cleom'- 
brotus was killed (B. C. 371). Epaminondas afterward four times 
invaded Laconia, and again defeated the Spartans at Mantinea, but 
was killed m the moment of victory ; and with his death ended the 
glory of Thebes forever (B. C. 362). Peace followed between 
Sparta and Thebes. Athens declined from her second period of 
greatness in consequence of the Social War, which she waged with 
her maritime allies (B. C. 35S-355). Greece's flourishing period 
had now passed away. The Grecian states, weakened by the many 
wars among themselves, soon fell an easy prey to the conquering 
arms of Philip of Macedon. 



54 



ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 



SECTION v.— GREEK PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE, ART.— (FLOUR- 
ISHING PERIOD.) 

1. Poetry. — Simonides, Piiidar. — ^schylus, Sophocles, Euripides. — 
Aristoplmues. — Simonides {si-ma)i-c-decz\, a famous Greek elegiac 
poet — born in Asia Minor, but died in Sicily aged ninety — lived 
during the Persian War, and his songs celebrated the heroes of 
Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platce'a. His coteniporary, 
Pindar of Thebes — the greatest Greek lyric poet — celebrated the 
triumphs of tl>e victors in the Olympic games, and also wrote 
hymns, dirges, and pastoral songs. Dramatic poetry was raised to 
its height by the three great Athenian tragic poets — ^schylus 
\es' -ke-lus\, Sophocles \sof' -o-kleez\ and Euripides \_u-rip'-e-deez\ 
— all of whom were in some way connected with the battle of 
Salamis. ^schylus fought in the battle \ Sophocles, at the age of 
sixteen, danced to the choral song of Simonides in honor of the 
victory; and Euripides was born in Salamis on the day of the battle. 
Aristophanes {aiis-tof -a-necz\ — the great comic poet of Athens — 
fearlessly attacked the greatest Athenians of his day — the half-divine 
heroes, and even the gods themselves. 

2. Pliilosopliy. — The Sophists. — Socrates and Plato. — Among the 
numerous Greek philosophers of this period were Parmenides \_par- 
men'-e-deez] and Zeno, of the Eleatic sect in Southern Italy; Em- 
pedocles \em-ped' -o-klcez\, of the Pythagore'an sect in Sicily ; 
Heracli'tus, " the crying philosopher;" Democ'ritus, " the laugh- 
ing philosopher;" and Anaxag'oras, who was driven from Athens 
for teaching that there was but One Supreme Creative Mind, and 
among whose pupils were Pericles, Euripides, and Socrates. During 
the flourishing period of Athens under Pericles and his successors, a 
class of men called Sophists appeared, who deduced correct con- 
clusions from false premises, and were ready to defend vice, as well 
as virtue. It was to destroy the influence of these Sophists that the 
immortal Socrates — the greatest and best of Grecian philosophers 
■ — discoursed with the people in the streets and in the workshops of 
Athens. Socrates did not teach any system of philosophy, but by 
enforcing the maxim "Know Thyself" upon his pupils, he en- 
deavored to induce them to find out the truth themselves. His 
virtues and his efforts to improve the morals of his countrymen 
aroused his enemies, who finally succeeded in compassing his death, 
as we have already stated. Socrates himself left nothing in writing, 
and our knowledge of him is derived from his illustrious disciples, 
Pla'to and Xenophon. Plato — called the Divine, and one of the 



GREECE'S FLOURISHING PERIOD. 55 

greatest of Athenian philosophers — was the founder of the Acadeniic 
sect of philosophy, so called because he delivered his lectures in the 
shady groves of Acadc'tnus, near the gates of Athens. In his Dia- 
logues, Plato represents himself as conversing with Socrates. 

3. Greek historians. — Herodotus, Tlincydides, and Xenophon. — 

Herod'otus, a Greek of Halicarnassus, in Asia Minor — known as 
the "Father of History" — described the Persian War, and em- 
bodied the results of his travels in accounts of other nations. He 
read his nine books at the Olympic Festival, and the admiring 
throng named them after the nine Muses. Thucydides \tJiu-sia'- 
e-deez] — a great Athenian historian — while in exile, wrote a History 
of the Peloponnesian War. Xenophon — another great Athenian 
historian, who conducted the Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks 
from Persia — completed Thucydides' unfinished account of the 
Peloponnesian War, and also wrote a 'History of Cyrus the Great. 
Among Xenophon's great works are his Anab'asis and his Meiiior- 
abil'ia of Socrates. 

4. Grecian oratory, sculpture, and painting. — Works of Pliidias. — • 
During the flourishing period, the Greeks cultivated the fine arts to 
a high degree of perfection. Isocrates \i-sok' -ra-teez\ conducted 
a successful school of oratory at Athens, and attained a high rank 
by his discourses. Grecian architecture consisted of three styles — 
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Phid'ias — the greatest sculptor the 
world has ever seen — adorned Athens with the works of his genius. 
Above all the numerous temples and statues on the rocky height of 
the Acrop'olis at Athens towered the colossal bronze statue of Athena, 
with its glittering helmet and spear, visible far out at sea, as if the 
goddess were guarding the city bearing her name. Among the 
works of Phidias was the ivory statue of Athena in the Far^theno?i, 
the temple of Athena at Athens. But the master-piece of Phidias 
was the gigantic statue of Zeus in the temple at Olympia, sixty feet 
high, made of ivory draped with gold. The great painters — 
Parrha'sius, Polygno'tus, and Zeuxis — embellished Athens with 
numerous pictures, and aided in making her the glory of Greece. 

SECTION VI.— GREEK SOCIAL LIFE, MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 
1. Greek dwellings. — The houses of the Greeks were generally as 
plain as their temples and public edifices were magnificent. The 
floors were of stone, and the walls were white until the time of 
Alcibiades, who ordered them to be painted in Athens. The 
houses generally stood away from the street, A laurel tree or altar 



5 6 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. ^ 

sacred to Apollo was often placed in front of houses. Often an in- 
scription was marked on the door as a good omen. In the interior 
were apartments surrounding an open court, about which were por- 
ticoes for exercise ; while in the centre was an altar on which sacri- 
fices were offered to the household gods. The women's chambers 
were wholly separate from those of the men. The slaves were shel- 
tered in an upper story, to which they ascended from steps on the 
outside of the house. The rich families had many slaves, while the 
poor citizen had only one. The roofs of houses were flat, aud served 
as places of promenade \\\ the cool of the day. Curtains were some- 
times used instead of doors. Houses were heated by means of fire- 
places; and, as chimneys were unknown, the smoke escaped through 
openings in the ceilings. Glass was not used, and mirrors were 
generally made of bronze. Dishes and other vessels were of pot- 
tery, metal, or wood. Variously formed and beautifully designed 
lamps were used. Roses and violets were planted side by side with 
onions. 

2. Eating and drmkmg'. — The Greeks ate three daily meals, re- 
clining on couches, and using neither table-cloth nor napkins. In 
primitive fashion, they used neither knives nor forks, but spoons were 
in common use. They washed their hands before and after each 
meal. Among the common people dried fish and barley bread, with 
dates, were the principal food. The wealthy, of course, indulged 
in all sorts of luxuries. After dinner came the symposium, when 
host and guests drank goblets of wine mixed with hot or cold water. 
The master of the feast was chosen by lot. This drinking-bout was 
enlivened by varied conversation, music, dancing, and all sorts of 
games and amusements. Guests invited to a banquet were met by 
slaves, who removed their sandals, washed their feet, and furnished 
them with water for their hands. 

3. GJreek dress. — The dress of the Greeks was nearly the same for 
both sexes. Their garments were made of wool, linen, and later of 
cotton. The Greek dress consisted of an inner tunic, and an outer 
robe, or shawl, called the pallium. In later times the Athenian 
women wore long loose dresses with flowing sleeves. Only travelers 
and workmen had their heads covered ; all other men and all the 
women having no covering for their heads. The better classes of 
Greeks wore sandals and shoes on their feet out doors. The lower 
orders always went barefooted. 

4. Industrial arts and occupations. — The Greeks worked mines of 
silver, copper, and iron, and obtained marble and other building 



GREECE'S FLOURISHING PERIOD. 57 

stone from the quarries. They engaged in spinning and weaving, 
pottery, and the manufacture of arms and armor, gold and silver 
ornaments, hardware, and furniture. Besides the large numbers 
employed in industrial arts were the merchants, shopkeepers, trades- 
men, and agriculturists. The Piraeus was the seaport of Athens, 
but the wholesale trade, and most of the retail trade was conducted 
in the market-places. 

5. Writing aud books. — Education. — Writing was done with ink 
made from soot, on prepared skins, bark, papyrus, or with a sharp- 
pointed instrument on thin sheets of lead or layers of wax. During 
the glorious days of Athens many private persons had large libraries. 
Boys only went to school. The schoolmaster was the graminaticiis, 
or grammarian. The sons of wealthy parents had z. pedagogue, or 
private tutor, who watched over them when out of school, and who 
was generally selected from the slaves. The elementary branches 
were taught, and passages from the works of the poets were com- 
mitted to memory. Music was also taught, such as singing, playing 
on the lyre, and reciting compositions in poetry. In early manhood 
the sons of the wealthy attended the lectures on philosophy, oratory, 
etc., in the Lyceum, the Academy, or some other institution. 

6. Gymnasia. — Gymnasia, provided at the public expense, were 
much resorted to for pastime and exercise ; and there the body was 
rendered supple by running, leaping, boxing, wrestling, throwing 
the discus, javelin, or quoit, shooting the bow and arrow, etc. 
The gymnasium was a part of Greek education, and was the training 
school for the Olympic Games. In later years the porticoes became 
the resort of philosophers, rhetoricians, and sophists, who publicly 
discussed moral and metaphysical questions. 

7. Music. — The Greeks were fond of music and played on stringed- 
instruments, such as the harp and lyre, and wind-instruments, such 
as the double and single pipe. The Athenians highly prized musi- 
cal accomplishments, and female musicians were hired at feasts and 
social gatherings to highten the enjoyment of the guests. 

8. Greek slaves. — The Greeks had slaves of all classes and grades, 
such as domestic servants, agricultural laborers, and artisans. The 
governments employed slaves upon the public works. These slaves, 
generally foreigners, the Greeks called barbarians. Many Asiatics 
and Thracians sold their children into slavery, and the buying and 
selling of slaves was a regular business at Athens and other parts ot 
Greece. Children born of slave women were doomed to slavery. 
Menial slaves were at the mercy of their masters and mistresses. 



58 



AXCIENT HISTOR Y. 



Slaves were often tortured to make them confess their own guilt, 
or the guilt of their masters. 

9. Gfret'k women. — Greek women were virtual slaves, and led 
secluded lives in their homes before and after marriage, devoting 
themselves to weaving, spinning, and domestic duties. They took 
care of the sick and had charge of the serv^ants, who were slaves. 
Marriages were generally arranged by the parents, and dowries were 
expected. The Hctc^i'a, chiefly foreigners, were a class of women 
who enjoyed greater social privileges, living in their own houses, 
and receiving guests of both sexes. These were generally noted for 
personal beauty and grace of manners, and also for literary accom- 
plishments, and are said to have been the " most witty and brilliant 
talkers of Athens. " The famous Aspa'sia, who became the wife of 
Pericles, belonged to this class. 

no. Greek fuiiei'al rites.— The Greeks believed that before the 
remains of the dead were buried the soul wandered in Hades with- 
out rest, not being permitted to cross the river Styx into Elysium! 
Immediately after death a small coin {oholus) was placed in the 
mouth of the deceased to pay the ferryman Charon for taking his 
shade across the dark river. On the funeral day the corpse was 
carried out, accompanied by relatives and friends as mourners, with 
hired women making lamentations, and a chorus of flute-players. 
The corpse was burned, or buried in graves, vaults, or tombs. Piles 
of wood, called ////'(^ (pyres), were used for burning a corpse, and 
oil and perfumes were cast into the flames. When the pyre had 
burned down the remains were extinguished with wine, and the 
bones were gathered, washed with wine and oil, and deposited in 
urns, which were sometimes made of gold. Bodies not burned were 
buried in coffins, usually made of baked clay or earthenware. Vases 
and other articles were laid in the grave with the dead. At stated 
times sacrifices were performed at the tomb, and the grave was 
decorated with flowers. 

11. Crrecian political ideas. — In the Oriental nations the only gov- 
ernment was despotism. There was an absolute lord, whose subjects 
■were virtual slaves, without any political rights whatever. The 
Greeks were the first people to develop democracy — government of 
the people, by the people, and for the people. It was owing to 
their political freedom that the Greek civilization was the highest 
of antiquity, and that the Greeks surpassed all other ancient peoples 
in art, literature, and philosophy. 



MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AND FALL OF GREECE. 59 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AND FALL OF 
GREECE. 

SECTION I.— PHILIP. OY MACEDON. 

1. The Sacred War. — Four years after the Theban War, the Gre- 
cian states became involved in the Sacred War (B. C. 358); caused 
by the refusal of the Pho'cians to pay the fine imposed upon them 
by the Amphictyonic Council for cultivating a part of the lands 
belonging to the sacred temple to Apollo at Delphi. The Thebans, 
Lo'crians, and Thessa'lians sustained the Amphictyonic Council, but 
the Athenians and Spartans sided with the Phocians. The Pho- 
cians robbed the Delphic temple of its treasures to carry on the 
war. 

2. Conquests of Philip of Macedoii. — After the Sacred War had 
lasted eleven years, King Philip of Macedon took part in the con- 
test and subdued Phocis, deprived Phocis of her two votes in the 
Amphictyonic Council and gave them to Macedon, and enslaved 
and exiled many of the Phocians and compelled the remainder to 
pay tribute. Philip also subdued the Greek cities of Amphip'olis 
and Olyn'thus, in Macedonia, and afterwards seized and strength- 
ened the town of Elate'a, in Locris. 

3. Battle of Chaeronea. — End of Grecian Independence. — The Athe- 
nians were now aroused by the eloquence of the great orator, 
Demosthenes \de-mos' -the-neez\, to a sense of the dangers with which 
the liberties of Greece were threatened by the ambition and the 
increasing power of King Philip of Macedon ; but the combined 
Athenian and Theban armies were defeated by the Macedonian 
king in the decisive battle of Chjerone'a, which put an end to the 
independence of the Grecian republics (B. C. 338). 

4. Grecian Congress at Corinth. — Assassination of Philip of Macedon. 
— Philip of Macedon now assembled a congress of the Grecian states 
at Corinth. By this congress, the King of Macedon was invested 
with the chief command of the Greek and Macedonian armies; but 
while making preparations for the invasion and conquest of the 
tottering empire of Persia, Philip was assassinated by Pausa'nias, 
a Macedonian nobleman, in revenge for some private injury (B. C. 
336). 



6o ANCIENT HISTORY. 

SECTION II.— ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

1. Accession of Alexander the Great. — End of Thebes. — The mur- 
dered Philip was succeeded on the throne of Macedon by his son 
Alexander, afterwards surnamed the Great, who was then only 
twenty years of age, but who had received a thorough education at 
the hands of the celebrated Athenian philosopher, Aristot'le. The 
lUyr'ians and other barbarous tribes having made an irruption into 
Macedonia, were speedily reduced by Alexander, who also easily 
crushed a revolt of the Grecian cities with Athens and Thebes at 
their head. Thebes was razed to the ground, and its inhabitants 
were reduced to slavery, but Athens and other Grecian cities were 
generously pardoned by Alexander. 

2. Alexander's invasion of the Medo-Persian Empire. — Battle of the 
Granicus. — After being made generalissimo of the Greek and Mace- 
donian armies, Alexander entrusted the government of Greece and 
Macedon to Antip'ater; and then started out to conquer the vast 
Medo-Persian Empire, which then extended from Greece to India, 
embracing all Western Asia. Alexander crossed the Hellespont 
into Asia Minor, in the spring of the year 334 B. C., with an army 
of 35,000 men, and defeated a large Persian army on the banks of 
the river Grani'cus, in which the victors lost only 200 men, and 
which put an end to Persian sway in Asia Minor. 

3. Battle of the Issns. — As Alexander proceeded eastward, prov- 
ince after province submitted to him ; and in the spring of the year 
2y2,Z ^- C., he invaded Syria, and defeated the Persian king, Dari'us 
Codoman'nus, who had collected an army of 700,000 men, on the 
plain of Issus, the Persians leaving 110,000 dead upon the field, 
while the Greek and Macedonian loss was only 500 men. King 
Darius Codomannus fled from the field, and his wife, daughters, and 
infant son, fell into the hands of Alexander, who treated them with 
the greatest .kindness; and the wife of Darius dying soon after her 
capture, she received a most magnificent burial from the King of 
Macedon. 

4. Sieg-e and captnre of Tyre and Gaza. — The battle of the Issus 
made Alexander master of Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine; but the 
famous sea-port of Tyre stubbornly resisted, and was only taken by 
Alexander after a vigorous siege of seven months, whereupon 8,000 
Tyrians were massacred and 30,000 reduced to slavery (B. C. 332). 
The Philistine city of Gaza also resisted Alexander, but was like- 
wise taken after a spirited siege, and its garrison of 1,000 men was 
destroyed (B. C. 332). 



MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AND FALL OF GREECE. 6 1 

5. Alexander iii Egj-pt. — Alexandria founded. — Alexander next ad- 
vanced into Egypt, where he was welcomed by the Egyptian people, 
who, tired of Persian oppression, gladly acknowledged his sway. 
While in Egypt, Alexander founded the celebrated city which was 
named in his honor — Aiexan'dria. For many succeeding centuries, 
Alexandria continued to be the great centre of commerce and civili- 
zation. Alexander visited the temple of Jupiter Ammon, on the 
little oasis of Siwah, and received a favorable answer from the oracle 
of that deity. 

6. Alexander's return to Asia. — Battle of Arbela and Gaug-amela. — 
In the year 331 B. C, Alexander, declaring that " the world no 
more admitted of two masters than of two suns," returned to Asia; 
and, directing his course toward the very heart of the Medo-Persian 
Empire, crossed the Euphrates and the Tigris, and advanced against 
Darius Codomannus, who had assembled a new army of more than 
a million of men in Assyria. With only 47,000 men, Alexander 
defeated the immense hosts of the Persian king, near the town of 
Arbe'la, on the plain of Gaugame'la, the Persians losing 40,000 men, 
and the Macedonians only 500. The fate of Asia was decided; the 
Medo-Persian Empire lay prostate at the feet of Alexander the 
Great of Macedon. 

7. Alexander at Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. — Assassination of 
Darius. — After the battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, Alexander spent 
some time in each of three great Persian cities — Babylon, Susa, and 
Persepolis — where he received a vast amount of treasure. While at 
Persepolis, Alexander, heated with wine, caused the old palace of 
the Persian kings to be destroyed by fire — an act which afterward 
caused him much regret. After the battle of Arbela and Gauga- 
mela, King Darius Codomannus fled to Ecbat'ana; but when Alex- 
ander approached that city, Darius sought refuge in the mountain- 
ous regions of Bactria'na, whither he was pursued by Alexander. 
But Darius was assassinated in his flight by his own officers. The 
generous Macedonian king honored the remains of his unfortunate 
rival with a most magnificent burial, and put his murderers to death. 

8. Alexander's conquest of Scji;liia. — The vast region of Central 
Asia — anciently known as Scyth' ia, but now called Tartary and 
Turkestan — was subdued by Alexander the Great after a vigorous 
campaign, during which the gallant Macedonian warriors suffered 
greatly from hunger and fatigue. During his Scythian campaign, 
Alexander married Roxa'na, "the Pearl of the East," a Bac'trian 
princess, whom he had taken prisoner at the capture of a Scythian 



62 ANCIENT HISTOR V. 

fortress. Alexander devoted some attention to the civilization of 
the countries which he had conquered ; and four new towns — named 
Alexandria, in his honor — became the centre of the caravan trade, 
and diffused the Greek civilization in Central Asia. On one oc- 
casion, while in Scythia, Alexander, heated with wine, killed, with 
his own sword, his old friend Cli'tus, who had saved his life in the 
battle of the Grani'cus, for some sarcastic remark while they were 
drinking — a crime which afterwards caused him much regret. 

9. Alexander's mvasion of India. — Porus, the Indian Kin^. — In the 

year 327 B. C, Alexander the Great invaded India with a power- 
ful army of European and Asiatic soldiers, but his progress was 
vigorously opposed by the warlike tribes in the region of the Indus 
and its tributaries. Alexander defeated Po'rus, King of the Pun'- 
jaub, and took him prisoner. When brought into the presence of 
Alexander and asked how he should like to be treated, Porus re- 
plied: "Like a king." The conqueror, highly pleased with the 
conduct and appearance of his royal captive, gave him his liberty, 
and made him viceroy of the Macedonian conquests in India. 

10. Alexander'-^ return to Persia. — Alexander next marched east- 
ward in the direction of the Ganges; but his soldiers, weary of their 
toils, absolutely refused to go any farther; and the conqueror was 
obliged to abandon his career of conquest and to return to Persia. 
After a march of a thousand miles, during which his army suffered 
terribly, Alexander returned to Persia. On one occasion, during 
this march, Alexander, it is said, sat upon the sea-shore, and wept 
bitterly that there were no more worlds to conquer. 

11. Alexander's last actions and nioasiires. — Alexander now pro- 
ceeded to organize a permanent government for his vast empire. 
With the view of uniting the Persians and Macedonians into one 
great nation, possessed of Grecian institutions and civilization, 
Alexander married Stati'ra, the daughter of Darius Codomannus, 
the Macedonian customs permitting polygamy ; and thousands of 
his officers and troops married Persian and Median women. Alex- 
ander won the affections of the conquered people by his generous 
conduct. He opened the navigation of the Euphrates, founded 
many new towns, and sought to connect the trade of the Nile, the 
Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Indus. 

12. Illness and death of Alexander the Great. — Alexander intended 
to make Babylon the capital of his vast empire; and upon a visit to 
that city, he was attacked with a sudden illness — caused by his 



MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AND FAIL OF GREECE. 63 

excessive indulgence in strong drink — which carried him to his 
grave, at the early age of thirty-two years, and after having reigned 
over Macedon and Greece twelve years (B. C. 324). When asked, 
just before his death, to whom he left his vast empire, Alexander 
replied: "To the most worthy." His remains were conveyed to 
Alexandria, in Egypt, where they were interred. 

13. Great and pennaiient results of Alexander's conquests. — The 

great and permanent result of Alexander's conquests was the Helleii- 
iztng of all Western Asia and Egypt — that is, the diffusion of 
Grecian civilization, ideas, language, and literature, over this vast 
region ; and thus preparing the way for the birth and development 
of Christianity, a religion which arose from the commingling of the 
Greek and Hebrew civilizations in Judaea. On the other hand, 
Greece became influenced by Oriental habits; Grecian patriotism 
and public spirit declined ; art and literature decayed ; and the 
Greeks became a nation of pedants and adventurers. 

SECTION III.— ALEXANDER'S SUCCESSORS. 

1. Eerolts ag-ainst Aiitipater. — Demosthenes and Phocion. — Cas- 
sander and the Demetrii. — While Alexander was conquering in Asia, 
Sparta and other Peloponnesian states attempted to throw off the 
Macedonian yoke, but were speedily reduced to submission by 
Antip'ater, the Macedonian viceroy of Greece, the Spartan king 
Agis II. being defeated and killed. Upon hearing of Alexander's 
death, Athens and other Grecian states attempted to shake off 
the yoke of Macedonian supremacy, but the revolt — known as the 
Lamian War — was easily quelled by Antipater, who compelled 
Athens to abolish her democratic form of government, to receive 
Macedonian garrisons in her fortresses, and to give up her great 
orators. Rather than fall into Antipater's power, Demosthenes 
poisoned himself. When the democratic party regained the ascend- 
ency in Athens they compelled Phocion, the virtuous and able 
leader of the aristocracy, to drink the cup of poison. Antipater, 
just before his death, in 319 B. C., appointed Polysper'chon \kon\ 
his successor; bnt Cassan'der, Antipater's son, made war on Poly- 
sperchon, and seized the government of Macedon and Greece. 
Cassander gave the government of Athens to Deme'trius Phale'rius, 
who was so popular that the Athenians raised 360 brazen statues to 
his honor; but his dissipated habits lost him his popularity ten years 
later, and he was driven away, all his statues but one being thrown 
down. Deme'trius Poliorcetes \^po-le-or-se' -teez\ (town-taker) — son 
of Antigonus — besieged and took Athens, B. C. 307. 



64 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

2. Civil wars. — Battle of IpsHS. — Dissolution of Alexander's Em- 
pire. — Alexander's great empire fell to pieces shortly after his death, 
and his generals quarreled fiercely over the division of the spoils. 
The regent Perdic'cas — to whom Alexander had given his signet- 
ring — became involved in war with the other generals and was 
assassinated. Antipater then became regent, and after his death 
Antig'onus endeavored to make himself master of the whole of 
Alexander's empire; but the other generals leagued against him, 
and Antigonus was defeated and slain in the battle of Ipsus, in 
Asia Minor (B. C. 301). This decisive battle — after twenty-two 
years of bloody war between Alexander's generals — effected a perma- 
nent division of his vast empire into four kingdoms; giving Mace- 
don and Greece to Cassan'der, Thrace and part of Asia Minor to 
Lysimachus \_U-sim' -a-kus\, Syria and the East to Seleucus \se-lu'- 
kiis\ and Egypt to Ptolemy \toI' -c-}nc\ In these civil wars the 
whole of Alexander's family and all his relatives perished. 

3. Macedou and Greece. — The Gauls. — Aeliapaji and Atolian Leagues. 
— Roniasi conqsiest. — Deme'trius Poliorcetes took x-Vthens and seized 
the throne of Macedon and Greece ; but seven years later Pyr'rhus, 
King of Epi'rus, and Lysim'achus, King of Thrace, successively seized 
the throne of Macedon and Greece, and Demetrius died in captivity 
(B. C. 2S3). Six years later Lysimachus was defeated and killed 
near Sardis by Seleucus, King of Syria, but Seleucus was soon assas- 
sinated by Ptolemy Cerau'nus, son of Ptolemy, King of Egypt. In 
the year 280 B. C., the savage Gauls under Brennus, their chief, in- 
vaded Macedon, and Ptolemy Ceraunus was defeated and killed by 
them. The next year (B. C. 279) the Gauls invaded Greece, and 
after a victory at Thermopylce and a defeat at Delphi, they retired 
from Greece and settled in Galatia \_ga-la'-shc-a\, in Asia Minor. 
Atigonus Gona'tas, son of Deme'trius Poliorce'tes, then seized the 
throne of Macedon and Greece; and his rival, Pyrrhus, King of 
Epirus, was repulsed at Sparta, and killed in an attack on Argos 
(B. C. 272). The tyranny of Antigonus Gonatas led to the forma- 
tion of the famous Achaean League — a small federal republic, em- 
bracing the twelve chief cities of Achrea — which arose under Ara'tus 
of Sicyon \sis]^-e-o?i\ about 250 B. C.; and which was eventually 
joined by Athens, Corinth, and all the Peloponnesian states except 
Sparta, and promised fair to revive the fading glories of the Hel- 
lenic race. The ^to'lian League — a confederation of tribes joined 
by Phocis, Locris, and Boeotia — also resisted the Macedonian power. 
The Spartan kings, Agis III. and Cleomenes \_kle-om'-e-neez\ tried 



MACEDONIAN' EMPIRE AND FALL OF GREECE. 



65 



to revive the long-neglected laws of Lycurgus. The ambition of 
Cleomenes involved him in a war with the Achaean League, which 
called in the aid of Antigonus Do'son, King of Macedon ; and Cle- 
omenes fled to Egypt after his defeat in the battle of Sella'sia, and 
Sparta was captured by the Macedonian king. The valiant Aratus 
of Sicyon — the leader of the Achaean League — was afterwards poi- 
soned by King Philip V. of Macedon, the successor of Antigonus. 
Philopce'men — the next leader of the Achaean League — conquered 
Sparta and abolished the laws of Lycurgus ; and in a general assem- 
bly of the Greeks, Philopcemen was hailed as the restorer of Gre- 
cian liberty. The Messenians having revolted against the Achaean 
League, Philopoemen endeavored to subdue them, but was taken 
prisoner and poisoned. The Achseans, however, took Messe'ne the 
next year and put the murderers of Philopcemen to death (B. C. 
182). The ^tolians were conquered by the Romans; and their 
ally, Anti'ochus the Great, King of Syria, was defeated at Thermo- 
pylae, and at Magnesia, in Asia Minor, and deprived of a large part 
of Asia Minor (B. C. 190). Philip V. of Macedon was defeated by 
the Romans at Cynosceph'alas, in Thessaly, and forced to acknowl- 
edge the independence of Greece (B. C. 197); and at the Isthmian 
Games the Roman general proclaimed the independence of Greece. 
Per'seus, King of Macedon, Philip's son and successor, was defeated 
by the Romans at Pydna, and Macedonia became a Roman prov- 
ince (B. C. 168). In 146 B. C., the Romans destroyed Corinth, 
and Greece became the Roman province of Achma. 

4. E^ji>t vinder the Ptolemies. — Ptoleiiiy Lagus and Ptolemy Pliil- 
adelpliHS. — Ptolemy Lagus — one of Alexander's great generals — 
founded the dynasty of the Ptolemies, which ruled Egypt nearly 
three centuries (B. C. 323-30). Ptolemy Lagus reigned forty years. 
(B. C. 323-283), and made Egypt a great commercial and naval 
power, and one of the most powerful kingdoms in the world. He 
conquered Palestine, Phoenicia, and part of Syria, in Asia, and 
Corinth and Sicyon, in Greece. He reconciled the ancient Egyp- 
tians to his rule by respecting their laws, religion, and usages, but 
kept a standing army of Greeks and Macedonians. He collected 
the great library and museum at Alexandria, his capital, which be- 
came the great seat of the world's commerce, and the centre of 
Greek civilization, learning, wealth, and refinement; and a mingled 
civilization — Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish — arose at Alexandria. 
Ptolemy Lagus built the great Pharos, of white marble, 400 feet 
high; the light at the top of which could be seen at a distance of 
S 



66 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

forty miles. This structure was one of the Seven Wonders of the 
World. He also constructed the Soma, a mausoleum, to contain 
the remains of Alexander the Great ; also the Hippodrome and the 
temple of Serapis. He likewise rebuilt the inner chamber of the 
great temple at Karnak. His son and successor, Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, married his sister; a custom followed by his successors. Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus encouraged literature and science, and increased 
the Alexandrian library to 500,000 volumes; and many learned and 
scientific men flourished at his court. He reopened the great canal 
built by Rameses the Great, connecting the Red Sea and the Nile; 
founded the port of Arsin'oe (now Suez), and also Bereni'ce on the 
Red Sea; and established a caravan route from it to Coptos, near 
Thebes. Ptolemte'us on the Red Sea, became a flourishing empo- 
rium of the ivory trade; and various industries flourished, such as 
weaving linen, glass-blowing, and paper-making. Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus boasted that no citizen was idle in Alexandria. His revenue 
was immense, his army numbered 250,000 men, and his fleet 1,500 
vessels. Ptolemy Philadelphus caused the Hebrew Scriptures to be 
translated into Greek. This translation — made by seventy-two 
learned Greek and Jewish doctors of Alexandria, and therefore called 
the Sep'tuagint Version — was an important event in history; and by 
spreading a knowledge of the Hebrew sacred literature, prepared the 
way for Christianity. His successor, Ptolemy Euergetes \_u-er'-ge- 
fees] — a great patron of literature and art, and also a great con- 
queror — extended his sway over Nubia, Ethiopia, part of Arabia, 
and most of the western territories of the Seleucidae, but the Seleu- 
cidse recovered most of their lost territories. Under succeeding 
Ptolemies, Egypt rapidly declined; and with the suicide of the beau- 
tiful but wicked Queen Cleopa'tra, Egypt became a Roman province 
(B. C. 30). 

5. The Syrian Empire of tlie Seleucidtc. — Seleucns. — Aiitioclms the 
■ Great. — Seleucus Ise-iu'-kusl — one of Alexander's great generals — 
founded the dynasty of the Sclcucidee \_see-lu'-se-de'], which ruled 
Syria and Western Asia for two and a half centuries (B. C. 31 2-65). 
: Seleucus at first ruled Syria, Babylonia, Susiana, Media, Persia, 
Bactriana and Parthia, and he became master of Asia Minor after 
defeating and killing Lysimachus, King of Thrace, at Sardis (B. C. 
281). The new cities of Seleucia \^se-lu' -she-a\ and Antioch \^an'- 
te-ok] — founded by Seleucus — became centres of Grecian culture 
and refinement. Seleucus soon removed his capital from Seleucia 
.to Antioch. The ancient Baalbec — the Greek Heliop'olis — was a 



MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AND FALL OF GREECE. 67 

splendid city, as attested by its ruins. Seleucus was assassinated by 
Ptolemy Ceraunus, son of Ptolemy, King of Egypt (B. C. 281). 
His son and successor — Antiochus Soter \an-te' -o-kus so -ter\ — 
defeated the savage Gauls who had invaded Asia Minor; but was 
afterward defeated and killed by them near Ephesus (B. C. 261), 
and Gala'tia and Pergamus were lost to the Seleucidse. During the 
reign of Antiochus II.,- Bactria and Parthia became independent 
(B. C. 255-250). During the reign of Seleucus II., most of the 
territories of the Seleucidae were conquered by Ptolemy Euergetes, 
King of Egypt, but were soon recovered. Antiochus III., the 
Great (B. C. 223-187), checked the Parthians and Bactrians, ex- 
tended his conquests eastward to the Ganges, drove the Egyptians 
from Asia, and conquered Thrace; but his interference in Greece 
involved him in a war with the Romans, and his defeat at Ther- 
mophylae and at Magnesia, in Asia Minor (B. C. 190), lost him all 
his possessions in Europe and part of Asia Minor; and Armenia be- 
came independent. Under his successors the Syrian Empire de- 
clined ; Judaea was lost to the Seleucidae by the revolt of the 
Maccabees; and finally Tigranes \Ji' -gra-neez\ King of Armenia, 
conquered Syria, which, with all Western Asia, submitted to the 
overshadowing power of Rome (B. C. 65). 

6. Tlirace and the smaller Greek Kingtlouis of JLsia. — Partliian Em- 
pire of the Arsacidte. — Thrace was absorbed by Macedon upon the 
death of Lysimachus, and eventually became a Roman province 
(B. C. 168). A number of smaller Greek kingdoms gradually 
sprung up in Asia from the wrecks of Alexander's great empire. 
Fef'gamus — founded by At'talus in the West of Asia Minor — became 
independent of Thrace 283 B. C., and its kings were celebrated for 
their wealth and patronage of learning. Attains III., the last King 
of Pergamus, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, and Perga- 
mus became a Roman province B. C. 130. Bithyn'ia, Cappado' cia, 
and Pontus were the most important Greek kingdoms of Asia Minor 
on the shores of the Euxine. In accordance with the will of Nico- 
me'des \jieez\ Bithynia became subject to Rome B. C., 74. Cap- 
padocia was conquered by the Romans A. D. 17. Pontus became 
a Roman province B. C. 65, after its great king, Mithrida'tes ■Jeez\ 
the Great, had been overthrown by the Romans. Papklago' nia was 
several times conquered by Pontus, the last time by Mithridates the 
Great. Greater Arme' nia and Lesser Armenia — the former east, 
and the latter west, of the Euphrates — became kingdoms independ- 
ent of the Seleucidae B. C. 190. The greatest Armenian king was 



6S ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

Tigranes \ti-gra'-neez\ the son-in-law of Mithridates the Great of 
Pontus. Lesser Armenia became a Roman province B. C. 69, and 
Greater Armenia A. D. 114. Ba(ftria — inchiding parts of the pres- 
ent Afghanistan and Turkestan — became a Greek kingdom inde- 
pendent of the Seleucidae B. C. 255, and lasted about a century, 
when it became a province of the Parthian Empire. The Parthian 
Empire — founded by Arsaces \ar-sd -seez\, who revolted against the 
Seleucidae about 250 B. C. — extended from the Euphrates to the 
Indus, and wrested from the Seleucidae many of their Eastern terri- 
tories. The Parthian Empire of the Arsacida; \_ar-sas'-e-de'] lasted 
nearly five centuries (B. C. 250 — A. D. 226), and was Rome's 
great rival for the dominion of Western Asia. 

7. The Jews under the Maccabees and the Herods. — Judaea was at 
first under the Ptolemies, by whom the Jews were greatly oppressed 
until Antiochus the Great of Syria wrested Judaea from the Ptole- 
mies after a series of bloody wars (B. C. 198); but the Jews were 
still more oppressed by the Seleucidae, who endeavored to force the 
Grecian polytheism upon the monotheistic Jews and profaned the 
Holy Temple at Jerusalem. Thereupon the Jevys revolted, under 
the leadership of the High-Priest, Mattathi'as, and his heroic sons, 
called Mac' cabees ; and after a series of sanguinary wars — during 
which Jerusalem was frequently taken and retaken — Judaea was 
freed from the oppressive yoke of the Seleucidae. The most illus- 
trious of this valiant Jewish family was Judas Maccabae'us, who de- 
feated the Syrians, entered Jerusalem in triumph, and restored the 
worship of Jehovah and the laws of Moses, but who at last fell in 
battle against the Syrians. His brothers and successors, Jonathan 
and Simon Maccabaeus — both of whom were assassinated — freed 
Judaea from the Syrian yoke, and made it an independent kingdom 
under the Maccabees, or Armoncz an dynasty (B. C. 135). The 
Jewish kingdom was, however, for a long time torn by civil wars 
and the contests of sects, until Judaea became tributary to Rome 
(B. C. 63). These Jewish sects were the Pharisees, noted for their 
strict adherence to the laws of Moses and for their hypocrisy and 
regard for outward ceremonies; the Saddiicees, who endeavored to 
modify the Mosaic laws in accordance with Greek doctrines; and 
the Essenes \_cs' -se-neez\, who held all their possessions in common 
and served God by acts of penance and works of charity. The Idu- 
mae'an, Her'od the Great — the Tetrarch, or tributary King of Judaea 
under the Romans — was an able but cruel ruler, who conquered 
Gal'ilee and took Jerusalem after a long siege; who persecuted and 



MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AND FALL OF GREECE. 6g 

massacred his opponents; and who introduced Roman civilization 
and institutions into Judaea, rebuilt the Temple, built a circus and 
amphitheatre, founded Cassare'a, rebuilt the Samaritan Temple on 
Mount Ger'izim, granted toleration to all religions, and relieved the 
sufferers from famine at his own expense. Herod caused his own 
wife to be put to death for conspiring against him. Succeeding 
Herods, or kings belonging to the Idumsean dynasty — among whom 
was Herod Agrip'pa — persecuted the followers of Jesus Christ, who 
was born in the year that Herod the Great died. Jesus Christ was 
crucified under the prsetorship of Pontius Pilate, the Roman gov-i 
ernor of Judaea, A. D. 29. The subsequent revolt of the Jews 
against the Roman power ended in the Roman destruction of Jeru- 
salem and the final dispersion of the Jewish race (A. D. 70). 

8. Edom, or Idumsea. — E'dom (afterward Idumse'a)— inhabited by 
the Edomites, or descendants of Jacob's son Esau — became a pow- 
erful and prosperous kingdom while the Israelites were in bondage 
in Egypt. The Edomites — who occupied the desert portions of 
Arabia bordering on Palestine — were continually at war with the 
Israelites, but were conquered by King David. For a few centuries 
the Edomites were alternately independent and subject to Judah. 
In the reign of Solomon, an Edomite prince named Hadad revolted, 
but the Edomites remained subject to the Kingdom of Judah for a 
century, when they recovered their independence, but nearly a cen- 
tury later they were subdued by Judah. Two centuries afterward 
the Edomites were conquered by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. 
While the Jews were held captive in Babylon, the Edomites con- 
quered the South of Palestine and seized the city of Heb'ron. 
Thenceforth the Edomites on the frontiers of Palestine were called 
Idtimce'ans, and those in Pe'tra were called Nabath(! ans. The Mace- 
donians vainly attempted to conquer Petra, an army under Athe- 
nse'us, a general sent by Antigonus, being utterly defeated by the 
Nabatheans, after he had plundered Petra. The Idumasans who 
had settled in Judaea opposed Judas Maccabaeus, but were entirely 
subdued by him, after their chief city, Hebron, had been sacked, 
and 40,000 of their soldiers had been killed and their strongholds 
levelled with the ground. They were conquered about 130 B. C, 
and only allowed to remain in Judaea on condition of accepting the 
Jewish religion. They adopted the laws of Moses, and soon became 
incorporated with the Jews. Upon the extinction of the Maccabees, 
the Idumaean Herod the Great became tributary king, or tetrarch, 
of the Jews, under the Romans. The Nabatheans became subject 
to the Romans A. D. 106. 



70 



ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 



SECTION IV.— GREEK PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE AND ART. 
(LAST PERIOD.) 

1. Aristotle.^-The greatest philosopher of this period was the 
Athenian Aristotle — the pupil of Plato and the tutor of Alexander 
the Great. Aristotle was one of the giant intellects of the world, 
and was the founder of the Peripatet' ic school of philosophy, so 
called because he walked about (in Greek pen'pateifi) while lecturing 
to his pupils, in the shady grove which surrounded the Lyceum at 
Athens. His lectures attracted throngs of listeners from all the 
Greek cities of Europe and Asia. Aristolle was the author of great 
works on physical science — particularly natural history. His system 
of mental philosophy prevailed 2000 years. 

2. Diog-enes, the Cynic. — The sect of the Cynics — founded by the 
great Athenian philosopher Antisthenes \an-tis' -the-tieez], a pupil 
of Socrates — maintained that man attained the greatest earthly hap- 
piness by renouncing all worldly pleasures. Diogenes \di-oj'-e- 
neez\ — an eccentric philosopher and the most celebrated of the 
Cynics — carried the docrines of that sect to the wildest extreme ; 
renouncing all the pleasures, comforts, and conveniences of life ; 
even, it is said, living in a tub. He once, with a lighted lantern in 
mid-day, in the streets of Athens, hunted for "an honest man." 

3. Epiciinis, Zeno, and Pyrrho. — Epicu'rus — an Athenian philos- 
opher and disciple of the philosopher Aristip'pus of Gyrene, 
another pupil of Socrates — founded the sect of the Epicureans, 
who regarded luxury and the gratification of the appetites as the 
chief end of existence. Ze'no — a native of Cyprus, but who 
flourished at Athens — founded the Stoics, who practiced the strictest 
virtue and morality, and sought happiness by an absolute indiffer- 
ence to all the vicissitudes of life. Pyr'rho — a Greek of Asia 
Minor — founded the Skeptics, who regarded everything as uncer- 
tain, some even going so far as to doubt their own existence. 

4. Pastoral poetry. — Theocritus. — Grecian poetry had declined. 
Menan'der was the last great Athenian comic poet, and flourished 
about 300 B. C. Pastoral poetry predominated at this period. 
Theoc'ritus, of Syracuse, in Sicily — the greatest of Grecian pas- 
toral poets — flourished about 270 B. C. Theocritus, in his ///j'/j, 
describes a pastoral life full of innocence and simplicity. BiON and 
MoscHUS \jnoe-kus'\ were pastoral poets who flourished in Sicily in 
the second century before Christ. Four Greek poets flourished at 
Alexandria, in Egypt, in the third century before Christ — the 



MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AND FALL OF GREECE. 



71 



elegiac poets Lycoph'ron and Callimachus \_kal-im' -e-kus], the epic 
poet Apollo'nius, and Ara'tus. 

5. Athenian oratory. — Demosthenes. — During the fourth century 
before Christ, Athens produced many orators and rhetoricians. 
IsocRATES [i-sok' -ra-teez] conducted a successful school of oratory 
and rhetoric. Demosthenes \_de-mos' -the-neez\ — the greatest of 
orators — was distinguished for his fiery speeches {philip'pks) against 
Philip of Macedon. He was the great foe of Philip, of Alexander, 
and of Antipater, and the great defender of Grecian liberty. 
Demosthenes came forth triumphant from an oratorical contest with 
.^SCHINES [_es' -ke-neez\ — the great upholder of Macedonian suprem- 
acy. Demosthenes poisoned himself, to avoid falling into Anti- 
pater's hands, as already stated. 

6. Grecian artists of the Macedonian period. — Grecian art main- 
tained its preeminence during the Macedonian period. The most 
eminent sculptors during the fourth century before Christ were 
Praxitiles \_prax-it'-e-/eez'\, of Athens, and Lysip'pus, of Sicyon; 
and the most illustrious painter was Apelles [ape^-leez], of 
Ephesus. 

7. Mathematical and physical science. — Euclid, Archimedes, and 
Eratosthenes. — The Greeks now cultivated the mathematical and 
physical sciences to the highest degree of perfection known to the 
ancients, and learned grammarians and critics collected and ar- 
ranged the works of the older Greek writers. Euc'lid — the eminent 
Greek mathematician and the father of mathematical science — flour- 
ished at Alexandria about 300 B. C, and composed a text-book on 
geometry used thereafter for centuries. Archimedes [ar-ke-me^- 
deez] — mathematician and scientist — flourished at Syracuse, in 
Sicily, in the third century before Christ, and gained an immortal 
fame by his discoveries in mechanical and physical science. Era- 
tosthenes [_er-a-fos'-f/ie-neez'] — a renowned astronomer, antiquarian, 
and scholar — flourished at Alexandria, Egypt, in the third century 
before Christ. Two great astronomers afterwards flourished at Alex- 
andria — Hippar'chus, in the second century before Christ, and 
Ptolemy, in the second century after Christ. Ptolemy's theory 
that the earth was the centre of the universe was accepted for four- 
teen centuries, and his great work on geography was an authority 
during the same period. Hippocrates \hippok' -ra-teez\ — a Greek 
of Asia Minor, who lived in the time of Socrates and Plato — was 
the "Father of Medicine." Ga'len — a Greek who lived in the 
second century after Christ — was a great physician and medical 
writer. 



72 



ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 



8. The later Greek historians. — Polybius, Diodorus, Diouysius, 
Strabo, aud Plutarch. — Polyb'ius — an eminent Greek historian who 
flourished in the second century before Christ, and who was a native 
of Greece itself — wrote a history of Greece and Rome up to his 
time, and was one of a thousand Achaeans carried captive to Italy 
by the Romans. Other distinguished Greek historians were Dio- 
do'rus Sic'ulus, a native of Sicily, and Dionys'ius Halicarnas'sus, 
so-called from the place of his birth in Asia Minor — both of whom 
flourished in the first century before Christ. Stra'bo — a celebrated 
Greek historian and geographer, and a native of Asia Minor — flour- 
ished in the time of Christ. Plu'tarch — the eminent biographer of 
antiquity, and a native of Chserone'a, in Greece itself — flourished 
about a century after Christ and achieved an immortal fame by his 
Lives of the great warriors and statesmen of Greece and Rome, 
whom he compared together. 



CHAPTER V. 
THE ROMAN KINGDOM AND REPUBLIC. 

SECTION I.— ANCIENT ITALY. 

1. Divisions of Ancient Italy. — Ancient Italy was divided into 
three sections: i. Cisal'pine Gaul, in the north. 2. Italy proper, 
in the centre. 3. Magna Gra eia, in the south. 

2. Cisalpine Gaul. — Cisalpine Gaul was divided by the river 
Padna (now Po), into two divisions; the one on the North side of 
that stream being called Gal'lia Transpad' ana, and the one on the 
South side being named Gal'lia Cispad'ana. Vene'tia was in the 
Northeastern part of Cisalpine Gaul, and Ligu'ria was in the South- 
western part. 

3. Italy proper. — The states of Italy proper were Etru'ria, La'tium, 
Um'bria, Picer'num, Campa'nia, Sam'nium, and the Sabine terri- 
tory. Etruria was early noted for its civilization and progress in 
the arts and sciences. The Etrus'cans, or inhabitants of Etruria, 
formed a confederacy of twelve towns, each of which was inde- 
pendent in regard to its own domestic affairs. 

4. Magna Grajcia. — Magna Grsecia embraced the states of Apu'lia, 
Cala'bria, Luca'nia, and Bru'tium. The chief city of Magna Grsecia 
was Taren'tum, the people of which were famous for their luxury and 
riches. Magna Grsecia was early settled by the Greeks, who 
brought with them the arts and institutions of their native country. 



THE ROMAN KINGDOM. 



13 



5. Ancient inhabitants of Italy. — The Pelasgians and the Greeks. — 

The aborigines or •varliest known inliabitants of Italy were, like those 
of Greece, called Pelas'gians. The Pelasgians of Italy resembled 
those of Greece. They were divided into many independent tribes. 
Their chief occupation was agriculture. They built towns with cy- 
clopean walls of unhammered stone. The chief tribes of Italian 
Pelasgians were the Etrus'cans, the Sabines, the Latins, the Sic'uli, the 
CEno'trians, and the Tyrrhe'nians. It was i,ooo years before Christ 
when the Greeks founded in Italy the colonies which were collec- 
tively called Magtia Grce'cia. In Sicily, the Greeks founded 
Messa'na, Syr'acuse, Agrigen'tum, Nax'us, Cat'ana, and other towns. 
Greek colonies were also settled in Corsica and in Sardinia. 

SECTION II.— ROMAN RELIGION. 

1. The chief Roman deities. — The Roman religion, like the Gre- 
cian, was a polytheism. The chief gods of the Romans \\q.xq Ju'pi- 
ter and Mars ; and all their religious festivals were connected either 
with war or with tillage. Jupiter was regarded as the king of the 
gods; but Mars, the god of war, was the special deity of the 
Romans. The month of March was named after and consecrated 
to Mars. Rom'ulus, the founder of Rome, was fabled to be a son 
of Mars; and, in the mythical history of Rome, was said to have 
left this world in a mysterious manner, and was himself thereafter 
worshiped as a god by the name of Quiri'nus. Another Roman 
divinity wx?, Ja' nus, the god of beginnings, and to him were conse- 
crated the morning, all gates and doors, the beginning of all solem- 
nities, and the month of January. Sacrifices were offered to Janus 
on twelve altars; prayers were offered to him every morning; and 
he was always invoked before any other god. The gates of the tem- 
ple of Janus were always open during war, that the god might come 
out to aid the Romans. Vesta, the household goddess, was near 
and dear to all Romans, who regarded her as the source of all their 
domestic prosperity and happiness. Every Roman hearthstone was 
a temple to Vesta, and every meal was a sacrifice in her honor. 
Six maidens, called the Vestal Virgins, guarded the sacred fire in 
the great temple of Vesta day and night. These virgins were highly 
reverenced. The Vestal fire was believed to be mysteriously con- 
nected with the origin of all things. Over the doors of every house 
was a little chapel of the La' res, the spirits of good men and of 
the ancestors of the family, to whom the father paid his devotions 
whenever he entered. There were public Lares in each city under 



74 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

Roman sway, and these were worshiped in a temple and in numer- 
ous chapels, located at the street corners. Rural Lares and Lares 
Viales were worshiped by travelers. In the course of time, the 
Romans incorporated the Grecian and other mythologies into their 
own religious system, so that they finally had an nidefinite number 
of gods and goddesses. 

2. Roman oracles. — The Romans, like the Greeks, believed in 
oracles, while they borrowed from the Etruscans rules for the inter- 
pretation of signs in the heavens, of the appearance of sacrifices, 
and of dreams. The Romans had four great sacred colleges — those 
of the Potitiffs, the Augurs, the Heralds, and the Keepers of the 
Sib'ylliue Books. The first regulated public worship and kept the 
calendar ; the second consulted the gods with reference to all public 
affairs; the third guarded the honor of Rome in her dealings with 
other nations ; and the fourth, in times of great public calamity, 
looked into the Sibylline Books, which were supposed to prophesy 
the fate of Rome. 

3. Roman feasts, sacrifices, and purifications. — The principal feasts 
of the Romans were those of the Luperca' Ha and the Saturna' Ha, 
the latter in honor of Sat' urn, the god of time. There were festi- 
vals to Tel'Ies, the nourishing earth ; to Ce'res, the goddess of corn 
and harvests ; to Pa'les, the goddess of flocks and herds ; to Dea 
Dla, invoking her blessing in maintaining the fertility of the earth. 
A deprecatory offering was made to Rust, the bad enemy of the 
crops. Once in five years, after the taking of the census, there was 
a solemn purification of the city of Rome and the Roman people, 
by means of prayers and sacrifices, to avert the anger of the gods. 
Farmers, likewise, were supposed to purify their fields, shepherds 
their flocks, generals their armies, and admirals their fleets, to guard 
against disasters which might be sent as a punishment for some 
secret or open act of impiety. 

SECTION III.— PRIMEVAL ROME, OR ROME UNDER THE KINGS 
(B.C., 753-510). 

1. Founding' ©f Rooie by Romulus and Remus. — The early history 
of Rome, based on legends and traditions, is so interwoven with 
fable that little reliance can be placed upon its annals for 360 years; 
the early records having been destroyed when the Gauls burned the 
city (B. C. 390J. ■ According to the Roman legend, Rome was 
founded in 753 B. C, by the twin brothers Rom'ulus and Re'mus, 
of the Latin race, and the leaders of a band of robbers. Romulus 



THE ROMAN KINGDOM. 75 

became the first king {rex) of Rome, and his power was shared by a 
Senate. Romulus reigned from 753 B. C. to 716 B. C. 

2. The successors of Romiilus. — The second king of Rome was 
Nu'ma Pompil'ius (B. C. 716-672), the first religious lawgiver of 
the Romans. The third king was Tul'lus Hostil'ius (B. C. 672-640), 
a great warrior and the builder of the Senate-House. The fourth 
king was An'cus Mar'tius (B. C. 640-616), the second religious 
lawgiver, and the grandson of Numa Pompilius. The fifth king 
was Tarquin'ius Pris'cus, or Tar'quin the Elder (B. C. 616-578), 
noted for the buildings which he erected — such as the great sewer, 
the great circus, or race -course, and the temple to Jupiter. The 
sixth king was Ser'vius Tul'lius (B. C. 578-534), the civil lawgiver, 
who caused a new wall to be erected around Rome, and established 
the census, which was taken every five years. 

3. Origin of the Roman Constitution. — From the earliest period the 
free Romans were divided into two classes — \\\t patricians, or nobles, 
and iht plebeians, or commons. The patricians alone were invested 
with civil and political rights. That class only held all magisterial 
offices, all the higher orders of the priesthood, the ownership of the 
public lands, and the privilege of using a family name. The patri- 
cians were the only populus, or people, in a political sense. The 
heads of the 300 noble families constituted the Roman Senate, an 
august assemblage, composed principally of aged men, distinguished 
by the broad purple stripe upon their mantles, and by their thrones 
and sceptres of ivory. The whole body of the patricians constituted 
the Comitia Curia'ta, or Assembly of the Patricians, which con- 
firmed or annulled all laws proposed by the magistrates. The sixth 
king, Servius TuUius — called "the King of the Commons" — estab- 
lished the Comitia Centuria'ta, or Assembly of the Hundreds, in 
which both patricians and plebeians voted alike; thus admitting the 
plebeians to a share in the goverment. Every free Roman was a 
soldier, and was enrolled, according to his wealth, in one of five 
ranks. The richest, being enabled to equip themselves in complete 
brazen armor, fought in the van of the army; the others, according 
to their means and equipments, were placed in successive ranks to- 
ward the rear. 

4. Abolition of monarchy. — Servius Tullius is said to have been 
murdered by his son-in-law, Tarquin'ius Super'bus, or Tar'quin the 
Proud, who then became the seventh king of Rome, and who 
reigned tyrannically from 534 B. C. to 510 B. C, when he was ex- 
pelled from the throne by an insurrection of the Roman people, 



76 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

headed by Lu'cius Ju'nius Bru'tus; and monarchy was abolished in 
Rome, and a republic established. The direct cause of Tarquin's 
expulsion was the conduct of his son Sextus, who caused Lucretia, 
the wife of Lu'cius Tarquin'ius Collati'nus, to commit suicide. 

SECTION IV.— THE ROMAN REPUBLIC'S STRUGGLE FOR EXIST- 
ENCE AND CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (B.C. 510-343). 

1. Consuls and lictors. — Brntus. — Foreign wars. — The first Dictator. 

— After the establishment of the Roman Republic (B. C. 510), the 
Senate continued to sit, and two magistrates called Consuls were 
elected annually. The Consuls were attended by a guard of twelve 
lictors, \)(fAX\x\g fasces, or bundles of wood, as emblems of authority. 
The first Consuls were Lu'cius Ju'nius Bru'tus and Lu'cius Tarquin'- 
ius Collati'nus — the founders of the Republic. Brutus condemned 
his two sons to death for engaging in a conspiracy to restore the 
banished Tarquin the Proud. The young Republic was involved 
in wars with the Etruscans, Latins, and other neighboring Italian 
nations, which endeavored to restore Tarquin the Proud. Brutus 
and Aruns, Tarquin's son, slew each other in battle. Lars Por'sena, 
the Etruscan king of Clu'sium, for a time held Rome in subjection, 
but the Romans threw off his yoke, and defeated the Latins at the 
Lake Regil'lus. During these wars was appointed the first Dictatof 
— an absolute and irresponsible master of the state, superior to the 
Consuls and the Senate, and even above the laws themselves. 
Thereafter, in times of great public danger, a Dictator was always 
appointed. 

2. Tyraiuiy of the patricians. — Although the monarchy was abol- 
ished, Rome was not by any means under a free government. The 
patricians , or aristocracy, grievously oppressed the plebeians, or 
common people. The patricians having possession of all the offices, 
exempted themselves from the payment of tithes, and soon became 
immensely wealthy ; while the plebeians were compelled to pay 
taxes for the little farms in their possession, and to perform military 
service without pay. Li time of war the lands of the plebeians were 
left untilled, and their dwellings were often burned by the enemy. 
They consequently became very poor, and incurred debts with the 
patricians which it was impossible for them to discharge, under the 
existing circumstances. If a plebeian failed to discharge his debts 
when they became due, his estate was seized ; and he and his whole 
family became slaves to his creditor, and were thrown into prison 
and maltreated. 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 77 

3. RcTolt of the plebelaus. — Tribiiues. — Coriolamis. — Patrician ty- 
ranny at length produced a general insurrection of the plebeians, 
who retired to Mons Sacer (the Sacred Mount), about three miles 
from Rome, where they resolved to resist the patricians. To avoid 
the horrors of civil war, the patricians made concessions. They 
released the debtors from their obligations, freeing all who had been 
reduced to slavery, and agreed to the appointment of two magis- 
trates called Trib' lines, who were to be elected annually by the ple- 
beians to watch over their interests, and to prevent by the word 
veto — meaning " I forbid" — any measure which endangered the 
rights and liberties of the plebeians (B. C. 494). The plebeians 
then returned to Rome. The Tribunes were afterwards increased 
to five, and still later to ten in number. The haughty patrician 
Ca'ius Mar'cius — who had received the surname of Coriola'nus from 
his capture of the Vol'scian town of Cori'oli — attempted to deprive 
the plebeians of a supply of corn, during a famine at Rome, until 
they should consent to have the office of Tribunes abolished; but 
the Tribunes banished him from Rome ; whereupon he led a Vol- 
scian army against Rome, besieged the city, and was only induced 
to withdraw by the persuasions of his wife and mother (B. C. 488). 

4. Spiirius Cassins and tlie First Agrarian Laiv. — Tlie Fabii. — The 
unequal division of the public lands caused Spu'rius Cas'sius to pro- 
pose the J^irst Agrarian Law (B. C. 486), but the patricians caused 
him to be put to death; and the law, although passed, was not en- 
forced, while the patricians also demanded the exclusive right to 
elect both Consuls. The plebeians then refused to enlist in the 
army and told the patricians to fight their own battles. The Con- 
suls then confiscated the lands of the plebeians, and thus enforced 
them to enlist ; but the plebeians, in revenge, allowed themselves to 
be defeated in a battle with the Veien'tians. The patrician family 
of the Fabii {Jd-be-i^ now sided with the plebeians, and quit Rome 
and founded a Roman colony on the little river Crem'era, in Etru- 
ria, a few miles from Rome ; but two years later the colony was sur- 
prised by the Veienti'ans and every man was slain (B. C. 477). 

5. The Publilian Law. — As the Consuls still refused to enforce the 
Agrarian Law, they were impeached at the end of their term of ofiice 
by Genu'cius, a Tribune of the people, who was murdered in his 
bed when the trial was to take place (B. C. 473) The plebeian 
Vo'lero Publil'ius refused to be enrolled in the army; a tumult en- 
sned, and the Consuls were driven from the Forum. Volero being 
chosen Tribune the next year, proposed a measure called the Publii- 



y8 ANCIENT HI ST OR Y. 

ian Laiv, which was resisted by the patricians, and the Consul Ap'- 
pius Clau'dius stationed an- army in the Forum; but the plebeians 
seized the capitol and secured the passage of the Publilian Law, by 
which the Tribunes were elected by the plebeians themselves in the 
Comitia Tribu'ta, thus making Rome a democracy (B. C. 471). 

6. Ten years' strugrgle over the Terentilian Laws. — Ciiiciimatus. — 
In the meantime Rome was suffering from famine and pestilence, 
and from wars with the Volscians and ^'quiane, who approached 
the very gates of Rome; while the struggle between the patricians 
and plebeians continued as fiercely as ever. The Tribune Teren- 
til'ius Harsa proposed a measure, called the Terentil' ian Laws, for 
the selection often commissioners to revise the Roman constitution. 
The struggle over the passage of the Terentilian Laws lasted ten 
years (B. C. 462-452). A son of the great patrician Cincinna'tus 
was exiled for raising riots in the Forum to prevent the passage of 
the Terentilian Laws, but he afterwards returned with a band of 
Roman exiles, headed by a Sabine leader, who seized the Capitol 
and demanded the recall and reenfranchisement of all banished 
Roman citizens. The whole band of exiles were defeated and slain. 
In revenge for his son's death, Cincinnatus sought to prevent the 
passage of the Terentilian Laws, but was only able to secure a de- 
lay. The ^quians having encamped on Mount Al'gidus and sur- 
rounded the entire Roman army in a narrow defile, Cincinnatus was 
appointed Dictator. The messengers of the Senate found Cincin- 
natus at his plow. He at once led another Roman army against the 
..^quians; and after defeating them and delivering Rome of her 
danger, resigned the Dictatorship and returned to his plow (B. C. 
458)- 

7. The Deceinyirs. — Laws of the Twelve Tables. — Military Ti'ibimes 
and Censors. — The Senate was finally forced to yield to the demand 
of the plebeians and to agree to the appointment of ten Senators, 
called Decem'virs, for one year, to frame a code of laws for Rome. 
After much labor, the Decemvirs produced the Laws of the Twelve 
Tables (B. C. 450). The Decemvirs had discharged their duties so 
well that it was agreed to continue them in office another year, to 
enable them to complete their work ; but they began to oppress the 
plebeians by arbitrary additions to the Laws of the Twelve Tables, 
and great popular discontent ensued. When the Decemvir Appius 
Claudius caused one of his adherents to claim the beautiful Virginia, 
daughter of the plebeian Virginius, as his runaway slave, her father 
plunged a knife into her heart, to save her from slavery and dis- 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 



79 



grace; and the plebeians, supported by the army, rose in insurrec- 
tion, overthrew the Decemvirs, and restored the old government, 
Appius Claudius ending his life in prison by suicide. Many new- 
privileges were now granted to the plebeians. The law prohibiting 
marriages between the two classes was repealed. Military Tribunes, 
with the power of Consuls, were chosen from the plebeians ; while 
two officers called Censors were elected from the patricians to take 
the census once in five years, and to inspect the public morals. 

8. Siege and capture of Veii. — The Etruscan city of Veii \ye'-e-i\ 
had long been one of the most formidable enemies of Rome; and 
when the Veientians had slain the Roman ambassadors, and had 
refused to give satisfaction for the outrage, the Romans, under the 
patrician Camil'lus, attacked the hostile city, which they took and 
destroyed, after a siege of ten years, reducing the inhabitants 
to slavery (B. C. 396). Having incurred the hatred of the plebe- 
bians by his unequal distribution of the plunder of the conquered 
city, Camillus was banished from Rome. Other Etruscan cities fell 
before the conquering arms of the Romans and the barbarian Gauls, 
and the Etruscan power ceased to be formidable. 

9. Invasion of Italy by the Gauls. — Capture and burning of Rome. — 

About 400 B. C, the Gauls — a warlike and barbarous people, 
inhabitants of Gaul (now France) — crossed the Alps and conquered 
Northern Italy, or Cisalpine Gaul. Under a chief named Brennus, 
the Gauls ravaged Central Italy and crushed the Etruscans ; after 
which they proceeded against Rome, defeated a Roman army of 
40,000 men on the river Al'lia, eleven miles from Rome, and then 
entered the city, which had been deserted by its inhabitants, with 
the exception of eighty aged Senators, who were massacred in the 
Forum by the Gauls, who then laid the city in ashes (B. C. 390), 
For seven months the Gauls vainly besieged the Capitol, which, 
situated on a high and rocky cliff, was gallantly defended by a 
Roman garrison of 1,000 men under Marcus Man'lius. The Gauls 
attempted to scale the steep ascent in a night attack, but the cack- 
ling of the sacred geese in the temple of Juno awoke Marcus Man- 
lius, and thus saved the garrison. Finally, when famine began to 
prey upon the garrison, and pestilence reduced the ranks of the 
barbarians, the Gauls accepted the ransom of one thousand pounds 
of gold offered them by the Romans, and retired from Rome to de- 
fend their new acquisitions in Northern Italy against the Venetians, 
and were followed by Camillus, who had been recalled from exile 



8o ANCIENT HISTOR V. 

and created Dictator. After the retreat of the Gauls, Rome was 
rebuilt. The public records having been destroyed when the city 
was burnt, no materials remained for an authentic account of 
Rome's history previous to 390 B. C. 

10. Marcus Maulius. — The Lidiiian Laws. — Praetors. — No sooner 
had Rome risen out of her ashes than the patricians again oppressed 
the plebeians with a heavy hand. The patrician Marcus Manlius, 
the brave defender of the Capitol, espoused the cause of the op- 
pressed plebeians, paying the debts of helpless debtors, and thus 
aroused the hatred of his fellow-patricians, who, accusing him of 
aspiring to a kingly dignity, caused him to be thrown headlong 
from the Tarpe'ian Rock. Rome was now saved from degenerating 
into a miserable oligarchy by two remarkable men — Lu'cius Sex'tius 
Latera'nus and Ca'ius Licin'ius Sto'lo — Tribunes of the people. 
Licinius proposed three laws for the guaranty of popular rights. 
The first opened the office of Consul to the plebeians ; the second 
prohibited any person from holding more than five hundred jugera 
(about 300 acres) of the public land, the remainder to be distributed 
among the plebeians as their own property ; the third provided that 
the interest already paid upon debts should be deducted from the 
capital sum in making payment, the remainder to be paid in three 
years. The patricians resisted the passage of the Licin'ian Laws 
for five years; but when the plebeians took up arms for their rights, 
and gathered together on the A'ventine Hill, the Senate, to avoid 
the horrors of civil war, sanctioned the three Licinian Laws, 
amended only by the provision that the judicial functions, which 
had before been exercised by the Consuls, should thereafter devolve 
upon an officer called Free' tor, to be chosen from the patricians; 
and Camillus, who had been six times Military Tribune and five 
times Dictator, dedicated the newly-built Temple of Concord on 
the Capitoline Hill (B. C. 367). In less than half a century both 
the Proetorship and the Dictatorship were opened to the plebeians. 

SECTION v.— THE SAMNITE WARS AND ROME'S CONQUEST OF 
ITALY (B. C. 343-264). 

1. First Saiimito War. — In the meantime, the Romans had ex- 
tended their territory in every direction by successful wars with the 
Volscians, yEquians, Latins, Sabines, Etruscans, Hernicians, and 
other Italian nations. The ambition of the Romans next involved 
them in a war with the Samnites, a powerful Italian nation to the 
southeast of Rome; but after a war of two years (B. C. 343-341), 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 8l 

during which the Romans defeated the Samnites in two bloody 
battles, a treaty of peace and alliance was made between Rome and 
Sam'nium. 

2. The Latin War. — Titos Manlius. — Patriotic deyotion of Deeius. — 

The Romans next turned their arms against their former allies, the 
Latins, who had vamly demanded of the Romans certain privileges. 
When the Roman and Latm armies faced each other, the Roman 
Consul Manlius forbade any soldier in his army leaving his ranks ; 
and when his own son, Titus Manlius, went forward at the challenge 
of the Latin general and slew him in single combat, the stern father 
punished his son with death for disobedience of command. The 
battle of Vesuvius (B. C. 339) was decided in favor of the Romans. 
The augurs had foretold that Fate demanded the destruction of a 
general on one side and an army on the other ; wherefore the ple- 
beian Consul, De'cius, devoted his life to his country by plunging 
into the thickest of the fight, where he was slain. The Latins were 
finally subdued, and Latium \Jd 'She-um'\ became a Roman province 
(B. C. 338). 

3. Second Samnite War. — The Caudine Forks. — Jealousies between 
the Romans and the Samnites led to a second war between those 
two nations (B. C. 326). After several Roman victories, the Roman 
army commanded by the two Consuls was lured by the Samnite 
general, Pontius \^pon-she-us\ into the Caudine Forks, where it was 
surrounded and compelled to surrender. After undergoing the 
humiliation of "passing under the yoke," and agreeing to a peace 
restoring to the Samnites all the territory they possessed before the 
war, the Romans were allowed to return home. Pontius kept six 
hundred Roman knights as hostages for the fulfillment of the treaty. 
The Roman Senate disavowed the treaty, and turned over the two 
Consuls who had negotiated it to the mercy of the Samnites. Pon- 
tius refused to wreak his vengeance on the two Consuls; and, with 
unusual magnanimity, he restored the six hundred hostages. After 
a continuance of twenty-two years (B. C. 326-304), the Second 
Samnite War ended in the triumph of the Romans. 

4. Third Samnite War. — In 298 B. C. began the third war be- 
tween Rome and Samnium. This war lasted eight years (B. C. 
298-290). The Romans gained a great victory over the Samnites 
and their allies in the battle of Senti'num (B. C. 295), where the 
Roman Consul, the younger Deeius, like his father at Vesuvius, de- 
voted his life to his country. The old Samnite general — Pontius — 

6 



g2 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

was defeated by the Roman Consul Cu'rius Denta'tus in 290 B, C, 
carried a prisoner to Rome, and, after gracing the triumph of the 
Roman general, was put to death by order of the Roman Senate. 
The Samnites, and their allies — the Umbrians, the Etruscans, and 
the Cisalpine Gauls — were compelled to acknowledge the sway of 
Rome, and Samnium became a Roman province, 

5. The War with Pyrrhiis. — Victories and defeat of Pyrrhus. — 
Meanwhile the Greek city of Tarentum, in Southern Italy, stirred 
up a league of all the other Italian nations against Rome (B. C. 
283); but the Romans defeated the Etruscans and Cisalpine Gauls 
in the North of Italy, and overthrew the Samnites and their allies 
in the South. When the Romans attacked Tarentum herself, to 
punish her for her mischievous policy, the effeminate and cowardly 
Tarentines solicited the aid of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, the greatest 
general of his time. Accordingly Pyrrhus landed in Southern Italy 
with an army of 30,000 men and twenty elephants, the first of those 
animals ever seen in Italy. In 280 B. C, a great battle was fought, 
in which Pyrrhus, after being seven times repulsed, brought his ele- 
phants into the field, and defeated the Romans under the Consul 
Laevi'nus with frightful slaughter. While viewing the sanguinary 
field the next day, Pyrrhus is said to have exclaimed: " Had I such 
soldiers as the Romans, the world would be mine, or had they such 
a general as I, the world would be theirs!" Pyrrhus vainly at- 
.tempted to make peace by sending to Rome for this purpose his 
i"riend Cineas, the orator. In 279 B. C, Pyrrhus defeated the 
Romans in a second battle, but at such fearful cost that he ex- 
.. claimed: "Another such victory, and I am undone!" Pyrrhus 
. then went over into Sicily to assist the Syracusans in their war 
..against the Carthaginians; but three years afterward he returned to 
.Italy, and was thoroughly defeated by the Roman Consul Curius 
.Dentatus at Beneven'tum (B. C. 275); whereupon he abandoned 
Italy and retired to his own kingdom of Epirus. Tarentum then 
fell into the hands of the Romans, who soon established their 
authority over all Italy from Cisalpine Gaul on the north to the 
straits of Messa'na on the south ( B. C. 266). 

6. Rome's provincial system, colonies, military roads, and aqueducts. 
— Rome governed some of the conquered Italian states, called /r^- 
fectin-es, by Roman prefects. She only exacted military service from 
others, called mufiicipal towns, leaving them local self-government. 
She jjlaced others under the control of colonies of Roman citizens, 
who were supplied with lands from the conquered people. Rome's 



THE ROMAN- REPUBLIC. ^j, 

rule was usually mild and just, and for this reason was generally sub- 
mitted to quietly. Rome's military roads were an important auxil- 
iary of her colonial system. The first of these was the paved road 
connecting Rome with Cap'na, in Campania, constructed by the 
great Censor, Appius Claudius "the Blind," and therefore called 
iht Appian Way (B. C. 312). Other roads afterwards constructed 
connected every portion of Italy, and united all with Rome as a 
common centre. The great aqueducts to supply the city with water 
— whose extensive and durable remains strike the eye of the modern 
traveler with wonder — were begun by Appius Claudius. Appius 
Claudius admitted freedmen and non-landowners to the privileges 
of Roman citizenship. 

SECTION VI.— THE PUNIC WARS AND ROME'S FOREIGN CON- 
QUESTS (B. C. 264-133). 

1. Cause and opening- of the First Punic War. — ^Roman successes in 
Sicily. — The Mam'ertines, a band of Italian mercenaries, having 
ravaged Sicily, seized the city of Messana, and massacred its inhab- 
itants, the Carthaginians aided Hi'ero, King of Syracuse, in a war 
against the Mamertines, who were aided by the Romans ; thus giv- 
ing rise to the first war between Rome and Carthage, or the First 
Pimic IVar {B. C. 264-241). In 263 B. C, a large Roman army 
under the Consul Clau'dius landed in Sicily and seized Messana; 
whereupon Hiero, King of Syracuse, deserted the Carthaginians, 
and entered into an alliance with the Romans. In 262 B. C, the 
Romans defeated the Carthaginians and took Agrigen'tum. 

2. Two Roman naval victories. — At the beginning of the struggle 
Rome had no navy. A Carthaginian vessel wrecked upon the Ital- 
ian coast served for a model, and in two months the Romans had 
a fleet of 100 ships. In their very first sea-fight, the Romans, under 
the Consul Duil'lius, gained a decisive victory, nearly a hundred 
Carthaginian vessels being taken or sunk (B. C. 260) ; and Duillius 
was honor ,d with the first naval triumph at Rome. Four years 
later (B. C. 256), a Roman fleet of 330 ships, under the Consuls 
Reg'ulus and Man'lius, defeated a Carthaginian fleet of 350 ships, 
under Hanno and Hamii'car Bar'cas, off the African coast, the 
Carthaginians losing ninety ships. 

3. Roman conquests in Africa. — Roman defeat. — Roman fleets 
wrecked. — The Roman army under the Consuls Regulus and Man- 
lius next invaded Africa, took 200 towns, and devasted the country 
with fire and sword to the walls of Carthage ; but when Manlius 



84 ANCIENT HISTOR V. 

returned to Rome with the spoils of conquest, Regukis was defeated 
and taken prisoner, and his army destroyed, by the Carthaginians 
under the Spartan general Xantip'pus (B. C. 255). The Roman 
fleet, while carrying the shattered remnant of the Roman force to 
Italy, was wrecked in a storm off the coast of Sicily, and 260 ships 
and 100,000 men were lost (B. C. 255). Two years later (B. C. 
253) another Roman fleet was wrecked in a storm, 150 ships being 
lost. 

4. Battle of Panornms. — Eoiiian uaral rictory. — End of the Fu'st 
Pimic War. — In Sicily, the Roman Consul Metel'lus defeated the 
Carthaginians at Panor'mus (now Paler'mo), 20,000 Carthaginians 
being killed and 120 elephants captured (B. C. 250). In the next 
eight years the Romans suffered many disasters at sea, fleet after 
fleet being lost in storms. Finally, a new fleet of 200 ships, raised 
by subscriptions among the wealthy Romans, manned by 60,000 
sailors, and commanded by the Consul Ga'ius Luta'tius Catul'lus, 
defeated the Carthaginian fleet off the little island of ^gu'sa, off the 
coast of Sicily, 120 Carthaginian vessels being taken or sunk (B. C. 
242). This decisive action made the Carthaginian anxious for 
peace ; and, after a continuance of twenty-three years (B. C. 264- 
241), the First Punic War ended ; the Carthaginians being required 
to evacuate Sicily, to pay 3,200 talents of silver to Rome, and to 
deliver up all prisoners and deserters without ransom. Sicily, Sar- 
dinia, and Corsica soon afterward became Roman provinces. 

5. niyriaii and Gallic Wars. — After the First Punic War, the 
Romans subdued the piratical Illyr'ians, on the east coast of the 
Adriatic sea, and the greater part of Illyria became tributary to 
Rome (B. C. 228). The Romans were next involved in a war with 
the Cisalpine Gauls; and, after a bloody struggle of four years, the 
Roman Consul Clau'dius Marcel'lus inflicted a crushing defeat upon 
the Gauls, and Cisalpine Gaul became a Roman province (B. C. 
222). 

6. fartliaginian conquests in Spain and opening of the Second Pnnic 
War. — The Romans next engaged in a second war with Carthage. 
After the First Punic War, the Carthaginians made conquests in 
Spain, and established the city of Carthage'na, or New Carthage, 
on the southern coast of Spain. In 219 B. C, the Carthaginian 
army under the famous Han'nibal, the son of Hamilcar Barcas, took 
the Greek city of Sagun'tum, an ally of Rome. When only nine 
years old, Hannibal had been induced by his father to swear eternal 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 85 

hatred of Rome ; and the attack on Saguntum was in fulfiUment of 
the vow he had made. The Roman Senate sent an embassy to 
Carthage to demand that Hannibal and his army should be 
delivered up for having trespassed on Roman territory, and thus 
violated the peace ; and when this unreasonable demand was not 
complied with, Rome declared war against Carthage. Thus began 
the second great struggle between the two republics, or the Secona 
Punic War (B. C. 21S-201). 

7. Hannibal's passage of the Alps and invasion of Italy. — In the 

spring of 218 B. C, Hannibal crossed the E'bro, and, after con- 
quering the wild hordes in that vicinity, he crossed the Pyrenees 
with 60,000 men and thirty-seven elephants, and marched through 
Southern Gaul toward the Alps, while his brother Has'drubal held 
Spain under Carthaginian sway. After some resistance from the 
Gauls, and after forcing a passage through Southern Gaul and over 
the Rhone, Hannibal reached the Alps, which he crossed into Italy, 
after almost insurmountable difficulties, increased by a heavy fall of 
snow and by fierce conflicts with the savage Gauls. During this dan- 
gerous passage of the Alps, lasting fifteen days, Hannibal lost one- 
half of his army from hunger, cold, fatigue, and conflicts with the 
fierce natives. Many of the elephants had also perished. 

8. Battles of Ticiuus, Trebia, and Trasiuienus. — In the year 218 B. 
C, Hannibal defeated a Roman army under the Consul Pub'lius 
Scipio Isip'-e-o}, with heavy loss, on the banks of the river Ticinus 
ye-s'i'-nus']; Scipio himself being wounded. Soon afterward Han- 
nibal defeated another Roman army under the Consul Sempro'nius, 
on the banks of the river Tre'bia; the Romans losing 26,000 men 
killed, wounded, or drowned in the Tre'bia; only 10,000 surviving 
and escaping. Hannibal next crossed the Apennines and marched 
southward, ravaging the country, and inflicted a disastrous defeat 
upon a large Roman army under the Consul Flamin'ius, near Lake 
Trasime'nus. Flaminius himself was killed ; and 15,000 of his men 
were slain or drowned in the lake, and 6,000 were made prisoners 
(B. C. 217). 

9. Cautious policy of Fabius Maximns. — Hannibal's stratagem. — 

The Roman disaster at Trasimenus quite overwhelmed the people of 
Rome, but the resolute Senate appointed Fa'bius Max'imus Dictator. 
By a new and cautious policy, Fabius Maximus — called Cuncta'tof 
(the Delayer) — avoided decisive battles, but fatigued and harassed 
the Carthaginians, and so reduced their strength that Hannibal only 



86 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 

saved his army by driving 2,000 oxen, with lighted brushwood 
tied to their horns, upon the Roman position, and thus escaped. 

10. Battle of Cannae. — The Roman people were dissatisfied with 
the slow and cautious policy of Fabius Maximus, and clamored for a 
decisive battle. In the year 216 B. C, a Roman army of 90,000 
men, under the Consuls Paul'us ^mil'ius and Teren'tius Var'ro, 
engaged in a great battle with Hannibal, who then had 60,000 men, 
at Can'nae, in Apulia; but the Romans suffered so frightful a defeat 
that the very existence of Rome was in danger. The Roman loss 
amounted to 50,000 men; the Consul Paulus ^milius was killed ; 
and the other Consul, Terentius Varro, fled with a few horse. 
This great catastrophe produced consternation and grief at Rome, 
but did not shake the firmness of the courageous Senate. 

11. Hannibal at Capna. — Instead of marching directly upon Rome 
after his great victory at Cannje, Hannibal led his army into winter- 
quarters in the rich and luxurious city of Cap'ua, in Campa'nia; 
where his veteran soldiers, giving themselves up to pleasure and de- 
bauchery, became effeminate, and lost all their love for war. 

12. Fall of SjTacuse. — After the great battle of Cannae, many of 
the towns of Southern Italy and Sicily revolted against the Romans. 
Syracuse, had been for a long time defended by the mechan- 
ical skill of the great philosopher and mathematician, Archimedes 
\_ar-ke-itie' -deez\, who set the Roman ships on fire by means of re- 
flectmg mirrors, by which the heated rays of the sun were concen- 
trated upon one point. Syracuse finally surrendered to the Roman 
general Marcel'lus in the year 212 B. C; whereupon many of the 
inhabitants, including Archimedes, were slaughtered, and the works 
of art were carried to Rome. 

13. Battle of the Metanrus. — Reduced to great extremities in Italy, 
Hannibal at length summoned his brother Has'drubal from Spain to 
his assistance. Hasdrubal crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps, with- 
out much opposition, into Italy; but, on the banks of the river 
Metau'rus, his army of more than 60,000 men was defeated and cut 
to pieces by the Roman army of 45,000 men under the Consuls, 
Liv'ius and Clau'dius Ne'ro; Hasdrubal and 56,000 of his men being 
killed (B. C. 207). The bloody head of Hasdrubal was thrown into 
the camp of Hannibal, who thereupon exclaimed : " I see the doom 
of Carthage! " 

14. Scipio's invasion of Africa. — Haimibal's return to Africa. — At 

length, in the year 202 B. C, the Roman Consul Corne'lius Scipio, 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 87 

after driving the Carthaginians from Spain, invaded Africa with a 
large army ; whereupon Massinis'sa, King of Numid'ia (now Alge'- 
ria) entered into an alliance with Rome. The Romans besieged 
Utica and took Tu'nis, whereupon the frightened Carthaginian 
Senate recalled Hannibal from Italy (B. C. 202). After return- 
ing to Africa, Hannibal held a conference with Scipio to secure 
peace; but, as the inflexible Roman general demanded uncondi- 
tional submission from Carthage, the attempt at peace failed. 

15. Battle of Zaina. — Eud of the Second Punic War. — In the terri- 
ble battle of Za'ma ( B. C. 202), Hannibal was defeated, with the 
loss of 20,000 men killed, and as many taken prisoners. Peace fol- 
lowed ; Carthage being required to give up all her foreign possessions 
outside of Africa; to pay 10,000 talents of silver to Rome in fifty 
years ; to keep no more elephants for war in future ; and to restore 
to the King of Numidia all the territory which she had wrested from 
him. Thus ended the Second Punic War, after a continuance of 
seventeen years (B. C. 218-201). Scipio — thereafter called Afri- 
ca^ nus — on his return to Rome, was honored with a most splendid 
triumph (as the splendid pageants and processions which the Romans 
gave in honor of their victorious generals were called) ; while Han- 
nibal was driven into exile by his ungrateful countrymen. 

16. War with Pliilip V. of Macedon. — Battle of Cynoscephalae. — 
After making peace with Carthage, the Romans turned their arms 
against King Philip V. of Macedon, who had entered into an alli- 
ance with the Carthaginians against the Romans in the Second 
Punic War; and, in the year 197 B. C, the Roman army under 
Quin'tus Flamin'ius inflicted an irretrievable defeat upon the Mace- 
donian king in the battle of Cynosceph'alse (dogs' heads), in Thes- 
saly. Philip was obliged to accept a peace by which he was to pay 
to the Romans 10,000 talents, and to acknowledge the independ- 
ence of Greece. To gratify the vanity of the Greeks, the Roman 
general, at the Isthmian games, proclaimed the liberation of Greece. 

17. War with Antiochiis the Great of Sp'ia. — Battle of Mag-nesia. — 
King Antiochus the Great of Syria, now interfered in Grecian 
affairs, and invaded Greece with a powerful army, but was beaten 
at Thermop'ylae and driven back into Asia Minor by the Roman 
army under Scipio Africanus and his brother, Scipio Asiat'icus. 
After sustaining a frightful defeat in the great battle of Magne'sia 
(B. C. 190), near Eph'esus, from the Scipios, the King of Syria was 
forced to accept a peace by which he gave up to the Romans all his 
territories in Europe and a large portion of those in Asia, to pay to 



88 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 

the Romans 15,000 Eubse'an talents, and to deliver up Hannibal, 
who was then living in exile at his court. 

18. Death of Haimibal and Scipio Africanus. — To avoid falling into 
the hands of the Romans, Hannibal fled to the court of Pru'sias, 
King of Bithyn'ia. When Prusias was about to surrender Hannibal 
to the Romans, the old Carthaginian general put an end to his life 
by swallowing poison (B. C. 1S3). His great rival and conqueror 
— Scipio Africanus — who, on account of the ingratitude of his coun- 
trymen, spent his last days in voluntary exile — died the same year. 

19. War with Perseus, Kin^ of Macedou. — Battle of Pydiia. — The 

wicked Per'seus, the son and successor of Philip V. of Macedon, 
began a fresh war against Rome. The Romans again invaded Ma- 
cedon, and Perseus suffered a crushing defeat from the Roman army 
under Paul'us ^mil'ius in the battle of Pydna (B. C. 168) — a battle 
which made Rome mistress of the civilized world. Perseus was 
afterward taken prisoner, and carried a captive to Rome to grace 
the triumph of his conqueror ; and Macedonia became a Roman 
province. 

20. Roman conquest of Greece. — Destruction of Corinth. — Twenty 
years after the fall of Perseus, the Macedonians revolted, but were 
again speedily subdued by the Romans. At the same time, the 
Achffi'an League took up arms to defend the independence of 
Greece, which was threatened by the Romans. The Achseans lost 
several battles; and, finally, the Roman Consul Mum'mius took the 
city of Corinth by storm and reduced it to ashes. The whole of 
Greece then became a Roman province under the name oi Ach'sla 
(B. C. 146). Thus ended the independent existence of the cele- 
brated commonwealths of Ancient Greece — victims to Roman 
ambition. 

21. Third Punic War (B. C. 149-146). — Capture and desti-uction of 
Carthage. — The same year that Greece yielded to Roman sway 
(B. C. 146), Carthage was conquered and destroyed by the Romans. 
After the Second Punic War, Carthage recovered some of her former 
prosperity, thus awakening the jealousy of the Romans. The con- 
duct of the Carthaginians in defending their own territories against 
the repeated encroachments of Massinis'sa, King of Numidia, was 
seized upon by the Roman Senate as a pretext for hostilities, and 
war was declared against Carthage. The elder Ca'to had made a 
practice of ending all his speeches in the Roman Senate with this 
sentence: '■'• Dclcnda est Carthago" ("Carthage must be de- 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 89 

stroyed"). The Carthaginians in alarm gave up three hundred 
noble Carthaginian children as hostages, at the demand of the 
Romans. The Roman army then crossed over into Africa. The 
Carthaginians were then commanded to give up all their arms and 
military stores — a command which was promptly obeyed. The 
Romans next demanded that the Carthaginians should abandon 
their city and build another city, without walls or fortifications, not 
nearer than ten miles from the sea-shore ; while Carthage was to be 
razed to the ground. This insolent demand was rejected by the 
Carthaginians in one outburst of patriotism. Then began the 
Third Punic War (B. C. 149). The Carthagmians, under Has'- 
drubal's lead, made great preparations for defence; being engaged 
day and night in manufacturing arms, the women cutting off their 
long hair to be twisted into bow-strings. The Romans in vain be- 
sieged Carthage for three years; but finally, under the command of 
Scipio ^milia'nus, the adopted son of the great Scipio Africanus, 
the Romans took the cit}^, after a sanguinary struggle of six days in 
the streets and on the house-tops. The Romans set the city on fire, 
and it burned for seventeen days ; and 50,000 of the wretched in- 
habitants were reduced to slavery, while the remaining 5,000, 
including Hasdrubal's wife and children, threw themselves into the 
flames and perished with their city. The city walls were then razed 
to the ground; and the territory of Carthage became a Roman 
province under the name of Africa (B. C. 146). Thus perished, 
after an existence of seven centuries, the once-mighty republic of 
Carthage, which had been mistress of the Mediterranean, and whose 
power had made Rome tremble for her own existence. 

22. Komaa conquest of Spaiu. — Fall of Lusitaiiia and Numantia. — 
The Romans next subdued the heroic inhabitants of Lusita'nia 
(now Portugal) after a bloody war; but only after the Romans 
had suffered many defeats, and had treacherously procured the 
assassination of Viria'thus, the valiant Lusitanian chieftain. The 
freedom-loving Numan'tians, in Northern Spain, also resisted the 
Romans. After two large Roman armies had been destroyed, 
Scipio yEmilianus, the conqueror of Carthage, with 60,000 men 
laid siege to Numantia ; and the Numantians, when reduced by 
famine, destroyed all their women and children, and then setting 
fire to their city, threw themselves into the flames and perished to a 
man (B. C. 133). Spain then became a Roman province. 

23. Rise of Latin literature. — Corruptiou of Roman manners. — Latin 
literature took its rise during the period of the Punic Wars. During 



90 



ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 



this period flourished the dramatic poet, Liv'ius Andro'nicus; the 
epic and comic poet, N^.vius \_ne-ve'-us\ who wrote an epic of the 
First Punic War, and whose satires on the nobility cost him his life ; 
the lyric poet, En'nius ; and the comic poets, Plau'tus and Ter'- 
ENCE. Conquered Greece exerted a powerful influence upon Roman 
life and manners. Greek musicians, artists, schoolmasters, and 
philosophers, flocked to Rome in large numbers. A taste for Greek 
culture prevailed, and the young patricians were carefully instructed 
in the Greek language. As Rome extended her power, the man- 
ners of the Romans degenerated, and they became corrupted by 
intercourse with the conquered nations. The stern virtue and sim- 
ple manners of the earlier Romans gradually gave way before the 
Greek luxury and refinement ; and the wealth of the Orientals flowed 
into Italy, producing extravagance and effeminacy among the peo- 
ple whose ancestors had been distinguished for their honest poverty, 
stern military and civic virtue, and republican simplicity. The 
elder Cato — celebrated for his stern virtue and old Roman sim- 
plicity — in his office of Censor, tried in vain to stem the tide of 
corruption and moral degeneracy which threatened to engulf the 
Roman commonwealth. By his instrumentality, the Greek philoso- 
phers and teachers were banished from Rome, and the most severe 
punishments were inflicted upon such of his countrymen as com- 
mitted offences against public morality. At his death, Cato declared 
that his countrymen were a degenerate race. 

SECTION VII.— CIVIL WARS AND FALL OF THE ROMAN 
REPUBLIC (B. C. 133-30). 

1. Eome's degeneracy. — Slave insurrections in Sicily. — Rome had 
now become the mistre.ss of the world. Although Roman conquests 
were still made, the period upon which we are now entering was 
distinguished chiefly for the degeneracy of the Roman people, and 
for a century of civil wars which finally ended the Roman Republic. 
The Roman conquests had brought wealth, with its attendant evils 
— luxury, corruption, and loss of patriotism and civic virtue. The 
two classes — the rich and the poor — began to entertain the most 
deadly animosity toward each other. In 133 B. C, 200,000 slaves 
in Sicily, maddened by cruelty and oppression, rose in insurrection, 
defeated four large Roman armies, and were subdued with great 
difficulty after a war of two years (B. C. 133-131). A second slave 
revolt in Sicily (B. C. 102-99) ^^^ ^^^o suppressed with great 
difficulty. 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 91 

2. Political and social condition of the Roman people. — The political 
and social condition of Rome was now such as to endanger the 
liberties of the citizens. The great mass of the population were ex- 
tremely poor, while the majority of the nobility were immensely 
rich. All the land, as well as all the lucrative offices, came into the 
possession of the nobles, and thus the greatest inequality in the dis- 
tribution of property existed. The large plantations were cultivated 
by slaves, and thus the peasants, driven from their lands by unscru- 
pulous and rapacious land-owners, were reduced to the most extreme 
poverty and distress. 

3. Tiberius Gracclius. — In this wretched state of Roman society, 
Tibe'rius Gracchus \j;ralJ -us\ a Tribune of the people, and son of 
Corne'lia, daughter of the great Scipio Africanus, proposed the en- 
forcement of the agrarian law of Licin'ius Sto'lo, which prohibited 
any person from holding more than 500 jugera of the public land. 
This proposal was violently opposed by the aristocracy, who vainly 
endeavored to persuade the people that Tiberius was attempting to 
overthrow the government and disturb the public peace. When the 
assemblies of the people were about to vote on the law, the nobles 
bribed Octa'vius, another Tribune, to forbid the proceedings, but 
the people removed him from the Tribuneship and thus secured the 
passage of the agrarian law. Tiberius next proposed that the treas- 
ures which At'talus, King of Per'gamus, at his death, by his last 
will, had left to the Roman people, should be divided equally among 
the poor. This proposal met with the most vehement resistance 
from the nobles ; and while a new election for Tribunes was going 
on, Tiberius was addressing the people at the Capitol, when a false 
report was carried to the Senate, stating that Tiberius had demanded 
a crown ; whereupon the Senators, headed by Scipio Nasi'ca, and 
accompanied by their retinue, proceeded to the Capitol, where, in a 
bloody conflict, they killed Tiberius and 300 of his adherents (B. C. 
132). The great' general, Scipio yEmilianus — the conqueror of 
Carthage and Numantia — becoming an opponent of the people's 
rights, was found murdered in his bed (B. C. 129). 

4. Cains Gracchus. — Ten years after the death of Tiberius Grac- 
chus, his young and talented brother, Ca'ius Gracchus, advocated 
the cause of the people, and being elected Tribune, took measures 
for enforcing the agrarian law, and commenced many reforms in 
the administration of public affairs. But when a new election for 
Tribunes took place, Caius was deprived of the office by false returns 
and bribery. Caius and his adherents were soon afterwards attacked 



92 



ANCIENT HISTOR V. 



on the Aventine hill by the forces of the Senate, with the Consul 
Opim'ius at their head. The party of Caius was defeated with the 
loss of 3,000 men. Caius, being surrounded by his enemies, caused 
one of his own companions to kill him with his sword (B. C. 121). 
His head was taken to Opimius, who had offered for it a reward of 
its weight in gold. 

5. End of Roman freedom.— Triunipli of tlie .aristocracy. — With 
the fall of the Gracchi [gra/c'-l'] ended the freedom of the Roman 
people. Thenceforth an insolent and corrupt aristocracy ruled the 
Roman Republic. The Tribunes, who had before been the guard- 
ians of popular rights, becoming rich themselves, now concurred 
with the nobles in oppressing the people. The city of Rome began 
to be filled with an idle, restless, dangerous pauper class; and Rome 
was thenceforth "a commonwealth of millionaires and beggars," 
while the old Roman virtue was dead. 

6. Tlie Jngnrtliine War. — The disgraceful corruption of the Roman 
Senate was clearly exhibited m the war against Jugur'tha, who, 
having murdered his two cousins, sons of Micip'sa, King of Nu- 
midia, a powerful ally of Rome, usurped the throne of Numidia. 
These outrages he perpetrated, notwithstanding repeated complaints 
to the Roman Senate, by bribing its members ; and he openly 
boasted of the power of his gold. At last, when the Roman people 
would tolerate his iniquities no longer, war was declared against 
Jugurtha (B. C. iii); but Jugurtha prevented Roman success by 
bribing the Roman commanders. This venality was discovered 
and punished. The Jiigur' thine JVar was brought to a successful 
termination by Metel'lus and Ca'ius Ma'rius; and Jugurtha was 
carried a captive to Rome, where he was starved to death in a 
dungeon (B. C. io6j. 

7. Invasion of the Cimbrians and Teutons. — In the meantime, two 
German tribes of barbarians, called Cim'brians and Teu'tons, 
invaded Gaul and menaced Italy- After five large Roman armies 
had been successively destroyed by them, the Roman Consul Caius 
Marius annihilated the Teutons in a fierce battle at Aquie Sextiae 
[^a-(/ue sex'-sZ/t''], near the Rhone river (B. C. 102). Marius, having 
been chosen Consul for the fifth time, contrary to the law, marched 
against the Cimbrians, whom he overthrew in a dreadful conflict at 
Vercel'lje, in Cisalpine Gaul (B. C. loi). These two great vic- 
tories checked the tide of the barbarian inundation for centuries, 
and Marius was hailed as the "Savior 0/ his Country.'' 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 



93 



8. Timuilts at Rome. — The Social Wju*. — Marius — a man of humble 
origin and the idol of the lower classes — was chosen Consul for the 
sixth time. He was obliged to abandon his partisans, Glau'cia and 
Saturni'nus, two unprincipled demagogues, to the vengeance of the 
Senate. Saturninus raised a tumult in Rome, in which the rioters 
slew the Government candidate for the Consulship, and liberated 
and armed the prisoners and slaves. The armed rabble were driven 
to the Capitol after a severe conflict with the guards, forced to sur- 
render, and stoned to death by a party of young nobles. Among 
the slain were a Prtetor, a Quccstor, and two Tribunes. Dru'sus, 
another reformer, who sought to enfranchise the Italian allies and 
subjects of Rome, was murdered by an unknown assassin ; and the 
subject Italian nations at once rose in arms against Rome, thus giv- 
mg rise to the Social War (B. C. 90). After a war of two years, 
and the sacrifice of about 300,000 lives, the Roman Senate was 
obliged to grant the rights of Roman citizenship to all Rome's 
subject Italian nations that would submit, in order to avert Rome's 
total ruin (B. C. 88). 

9. First Mithridatic War. — Civil War of Marius and Sulla. — Rome 
was next involved in a war with Mithrida'tes, the powerful King of 
Pontus, who caused 80,000 Roman subjects to be massacred in one 
night, defeated two large Roman armies, and made himself master 
of Asia Minor and Greece (B C. '^'i). The Roman Senate had 
given the command of the army against Mithridates to Corne'lius 
Sul'la, a young Roman noble, who had served under Marius in the 
Jugurthine War, the war against the Cimbrians and Teutons, and 
the Social War ; but Marius, jealous of Sulla's military fame, pro- 
cured a decree from the Roman people investing himself with the 
chief command ; whereupon Sulla led his army from Southern Italy 
against Rome, entered the city, and outlawed Marius and eleven of 
his partisans. Marius escaped to Africa, after a series of dangerous 
and romantic adventures (B. C. 88); but when Sulla had passed 
into Greece to conduct the war against Mithridates, Marius returned 
to Italy; and a furious civil war ensued, which ravaged Italy with 
all its horrors. The Senate and the aristocracy sided with the party 
of Sulla, but Rome was besieged and taken by Marius; whereupon 
a general massacre of Sulla's partisans ensued for five days and 
nights, the heads of the murdered Senators and nobles being given 
to the dogs and to the birds of the air. Marius was then chosen 
Consul for the seventh time, but he died sixteen days afterward 
from the effects of intemperance (B. C. Zd). 



94 



ANCIENT HISTOR V. 



10. SiUla's- Dictatorship and resignation. — In the meantime Sulla 
had taken Athens by storm, defeated two large armies of Mithridates, 
and forced him to a peace restoring Greece and Asia Minor to the 
Romans (B. C. 84). After the conclusion of the J^irsf Alithrida'tic 
War, Sulla returned to Italy, and after defeating the partisans of 
Marius in many battles, captured Rome. Like Marius, Sulla caused 
his enemies to be massacred, and all Italy was filled with massacre 
and blood. In Rome, the streets were heaped up with the dead 
bodies of the massacred partisans of Marius. Sulla then caused 
himself to be appointed Perpetual Dictator; but two years later, 
Sulla, to the surprise of everybody, resigned his power and retired 
to his estate, where he soon afterward died of a loathsome disease, 
occasioned by intemperance and debauchery (B. C. 78). 

11. Rebellion of Sertorius in Spain. — In Spain, the partisans of 
Marius, headed by Serto'rius, continued in arms against the Roman 
Senate, even after Sulla's death. After Sertorius had gained several 
victories over the Roman armies sent against him, the youthful 
Cnaeus Pompey \_ne'-us poni -pe~\ — afterward surnamed the Great — 
was sent into Spam to quell the rebellion, but he too was defeated; 
and peace was only restored after Sertorius had been assassinated by 
his own officers (B. C. 70). 

12. Rebellion of the slaves nnder Spartacus. — In the meantime, a 
dangerous rebellion of the slaves, headed by the gladiator Spar'ta- 
cus, broke out in Italy. A favorite sport of the Romans was to see 
these gladiators — who were captives taken in war — fight with wild 
beasts, or slay each other, in the amphitheatre. Spartacus, with 
other gladiators, had escaped from his place of confinement at 
Capua ; and, being joined by slaves, fugitives from justice, and des- 
peradoes of every sort, he soon had 120,000 men under his com- 
mand. After defeating five large Roman armies commanded by the 
Consuls, Spartacus and his followers were subdued by the Praetoi 
Mar'cus Cras'sus, Pompey's rival; Spartacus being slain (B. C. 70). 

13. War ag-ainst the Cilician pii-ates. — The pirates from the moun- 
tainous country of Cilicia \_se-lish'-e-a\ in Asia Minor, having foi 
some time plundered the coasts of the Mediterranean, and carried 
off many of the inhabitants, including Roman Senators and nobles, 
into slavery, Pompey was invested with the supreme command of 
the Roman fleets and armies; and, in less than three months, the 
pirates were driven from the seas, and subdued in the mountainous 
country of Cilicia, by Pompey, who distributed them as colonists in 
the various cities and towns of Asia Minor (B. C. 67). 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 



95 



14. Pompey's conquests in Asia. — Mitliridates, the Seleucidje, and 
Judaea. — Mithridates, the powerful King of Pontus, had begun 
another war with Rome in B. C. 74. After the Roman general 
Lucul'lus had defeated Mithridates and driven him into Armenia, 
Mithridates was aided by his son-in-law, Tigranes \ti-gri^-neez\, the 
powerful King of Armenia; but LucuUus defeated the Armenian 
king's 200,000 men at Tigranocer'ta, the Armenian capital (B. C. 
69), and gained another victory over Tigranes the next year (B. C. 
68). The Roman troops having mutinied, Lucullus was defeated 
by Mithridates. The Roman Senate then invested Pompey with 
the chief command of the Roman army in Asia and gave him abso- 
lute powers. Pompey soon overthrew both Mithridates and Tigra- 
nes, and made Pontus a Roman province (B. C. 66); and Mithri- 
dates poisoned himself (B. C. 63). In 65 B. C, Pompey subverted 
the Syrian Empire of the Seleucidse, and Syria became a Roman 
province. Soon afterward, Pompey interfered in Jewish affairs, 
took Jerusalem by storm, and made Judasa tributarv to Rome 
(B. C. 63). 

15. Conspii'acy of Catiline. — While Pompey was winning laurels in 
Asia, the Roman Republic was brought to the very brink of destruc- 
tion by a conspiracy headed by the infamous Lu'cius Ser'gius Cat'- 
iline, who was supported in the plot by many young nobles of des- 
perate fortunes. The conspirators were foiled in their attempt to 
murder the great orator, Mar'cus Tul'lius Cicero \si!!-e-ro\, who was 
at that time one of the Consuls. Catiline appeared in the Senate- 
House, where Cicero unmasked the designs of the conspirators, but 
soon fled from the city. The army of the conspirators was defeated 
in Etruria, by the Consul Anto'nius, and Catiline was among the 
slain. Cicero, whose vigilance and patriotism had saved Rome by 
defeating this infamous plot, received the title of "Father of his 
Country. ' ' 

16. The First Triumvirate. — In the year 60 B. C, a political part- 
nership, called the First Triun^virate, was formed by Pompey, 
Crassus, and the youthful Ca'ius Ju'lius Caesar \se' -zar\, the nephew 
of Marius ; by which these three men virtually assumed the govern- 
ment of the Roman Republic. The Trium'virs divided the Repub- 
lic among themselves. Pompey received Italy, Spain, and Africa; 
Crassus — the richest man in Rome, and whose avarice was un- 
bounded — chose Syria, which was famed for its wealth ; and Caesar 
obtained Gaul, the complete conquest of which was entrusted to 
him. 



96 



ANCIENT HIS TOR V. 



17. Julius Caesar's conquests iii Gaul, Germany, and Britain. — Fate 
of Crassus in Parthia. — In the course of eight years, Julius Caesar 
subdued Gaul. During this period, he twice crossed the Rhine into 
Germany, and twice invaded Britain (B. C. 55-54)- The Britons 
held their priests, or Druids, in great veneration, and regarded the 
oak as a sacred tree, while they regarded the mistletoe with reverence. 
While in Gaul, Caesar conquered three hundred nations, subdued 
three millions of people, killed one million, and reduced another 
million to slavery. Caesar gave an account of his campaigns in 
Gaul in his Co7nmc7itaries, which he wrote while conducting those 
campaigns. After taking possession of Syria, Crassus led an ex- 
pedition into the Parthian Empire for purposes of conquest and 
plunder, but his army was cut to pieces and himself killed by the 
Parthians (B. C. 53). 

18. Ciril War of Pompey and €f»sar. — Battle of Pliarsalia. — Assas- 
sination of Pompey. — The death of Crassus left Pompey and Caesar 
as the only two masters of the Roman world. But these two great 
generals, being jealous of each other's fame, soon became rivals and 
enemies. The Senate and the aristocracy sided with Pompey, Avhile 
the lower classes adhered to Caesar. The Senate ordered Caesar to 
resign his command after the termination of his campaigns in Gaul, 
but Caesar would not comply with this demand unless Pompey also 
resigned his command ; whereupon the Senate threatened to declare 
Caesar a public enemy. Both parties then flew to arms, and in- 
volved the Roman Republic in the horrors of another civil war. 
The Tribunes Mark An'tony and Quin'tus Cassius \casH -e-us\, 
friends of Caesar, fled to Caesar's camp at Raven'na, in Northern 
Italy ; and C^sar passed the Ru'bicon, or boundary stream between 
Cisalpine Gaul and Central Italy, and entered Rome and was in 
possession of all Italy within sixty days, the Senate and Pompey 
having fled into Greece. After going to Spain and defeating Pom- 
pey's adherents in that Roman province, and taking the town of 
Massil'ia (now Marseilles), in Gaul, by siege, Caesar passed over into 
Greece, and overthrew Pompey in the great battle of Pharsa'lia, in 
Thessaly (B. C. 48). Pompey fled into Egypt, where he was assas- 
sinated by order of Ptolemy, the young king of that country, who, 
being at war with his wife and sister, Cleopa'tra, endeavored to gain 
the friendship of Caesar. 

19. Caesar in Egypt. — His conquest of Poutus. — When Caesar ar- 
rived at Alexandria, in Egypt, the bloody head and signet ring of 
Pompey were brought to him ; but Caesar wept bitterly, and ordered 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 97 

the head of his unfortunate rival to be buried with due honors, 
while he bestowed honors and rewards on Pompey's most faithful 
adherents. Caesar decided in favor of Cleopatra's claims to the 
throne of Egypt, whereupon Ptolemy's partisans set fire to the 
palace in which Caesar had taken refuge, and the great library 
established by King Ptolemy Philadelphus fell a prey to the flames. 
Caesar escaped and defeated Ptolemy's army in battle, and Ptolemy 
himself was drowned in the Nile (B. C. 48). Thus Cleopatra was 
established on the throne of Egypt. The next year (B. C. 47), 
Caesar advanced into Asia, against Pharna'ces, King of Pontus — son 
of Mithridates — whom he subdued so easily that he announced his 
victory to the Roman Senate in three words: " Veni,vidi, via'' ("I 
came, I saw, I conquered"). 

20. Caesar's rictories over the Pompeians iii Africa and Spain. — 
Cajsar's Dictatoi-sliip. — After returning to Rome, Caesar proceeded 
to Africa and defeated Pompey's sons and the younger Cato in the 
battle of Thapsus, and Cato, shutting himself up in Utica, com- 
mitted suicide (B. C. 46). Caesar then returned to Rome, where 
he celebrated for four days triumphs for his victories in Gaul, Egypt, 
Pontus and Numidia; feasted the people with twenty thousand 
tables spread with gifts of grain and money in the streets and public 
squares of Rome ; and rectified the calendar, making the year con- 
sist of 365 days, and adding a day every fourth year. The servile 
Senate gave his clan -name to his birth-month — -July. Caesar then: 
proceeded to Spain and overthrew Pompey's sons in the battle of 
Munda, Cneius being killed, but Sextus making his escape (B. C. 
45). After returning to Rome, Julius Caesar was created Dictator 
and Censor for life, with the title of Imperaltor, and was invested 
with all the powers of an absolute monarch, although the name and 
outward forms of the Republic were allowed to remain. Caesar was 
also allowed to name his successor. His person was declared sacred, 
and his statue was placed beside that of Jupiter in the Capitol, and 
on it was inscribed : "7<? Ccesar the Detni-god.'" Caesar now laid 
aside the sword and cultivated the arts of peace. He altered the 
laws, corrected many abuses, granted the privileges of Roman 
citizenship to whole Roman provinces, sent many of the inhabitants 
of the over-crowded city of Rome into the provinces as colonists, 
caused the Roman laws to be digested into a code, and planned 
many improvements, such as the digging of canals, the opening of 
harbors, the construction of roads, the collection of public libraries, 
and the erection of a new theatre and a magnificent temple to Mars. 
7 



9 8 ANCIENT HIS TOR V. 

21. Caesar's assassination. — At the feast of the Liiperca'lia, Mark 
Antony offered Csesar a crown, but the popular disapprobation of 
this offer obliged Ccesar to decline the title and emblem of royalty. 
Still it was believed that Caesar was aspiring to a kingly dignity, and 
a conspiracy was formed by about sixty Senators to assassinate the 
Dictator. At the head of the conspirators were the Praetor Ca'ius 
Cas'sius, who hated Caesar, and Mar'cus Ju'nius Bru'tus, a sincere 
friend of liberty and a republican of the old stamp, but also a firm 
friend of Caesar. When, on the I^/rs (15th) of March, B. C. 44, 
Csesar entered the Senate-House, the conspirators attacked him 
with their daggers, and he fell down at the base of Pompey's statue, 
pierced with twenty-three wounds, and expired. Seeing his dear 
friend Brutus among the conspirators, Ccesar exclaimed as he fell: 
^' £f fu Bn/fe /" (" Thou too Brutus !") x'Vs soon as the bloody 
work of the conspirators was accomplished, Brutus congratulated 
the Senate, and Cicero in particular, on the recovery of Roman 
liberty. Many of the Senators fled from Rome and hid themselves 
:in their houses. Thus perished the greatest man that Rome — some 
say the greatest man that the world — ever produced. He was a 

.great warrior, statesman, orator, and historian. 

22. Fiuieral of Ca'sar. — Mark Antony. — Flight of Brutus and Cass- 
ias. — On the day of Caesar's funeral, Mark An'tony delivered the 
funeral oration in the Forum. By recounting the great deeds of 

' the murdered Cjesar, and lifting up the bloody robe and showing 
' Caesar's body with the number of stabs in it, and also showing an 
miage of wax representing Caesar's body all covered with wounds, 
Antony so excited the passions of the multitude that they stormed 
the Senate-House, tore up the benches to make a funeral pile, and 
ran through the streets with lighted brands to set fire to the houses 
of Brutus, Cassius, and the other conspirators. Brutus and Cassius 
fled for refuge to the Eastern Roman provinces, where they de- 
termined to make final stand to save the Roman Republic. 

23. Rivalry of Octavius and Antony. — Tiie Second Tiiuuivirate. — • 
Antony, popular with the masses, endeavored to succeed Julius 

■ Csesar ; but found a powerful rival in the youthful Octa'vius Caesar, 
: the grand-nephew and adopted son, and principal heir of the 

■ murdered Dictator. Octavius gained the support of Cicero, who, 
by his ia.\no\.\s phiii/pics, destroyed Antony's popularity and his in- 
fluence with the Senate. Antony was defeated in two battles in 
Cisalpine Gaul and driven across the Alps by the two Consuls, both 
of whom were slain (B. C. 43). Octavius took command, while 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 



99 



Antony was joined by Lep'idus, a famous general. The Senate then 
antagonized Octavius and refused him the Consulship, whereupon 
Octavius led his army to Rome and forced the Senate to accede to 
his desires. Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus then formed a league 
called the Second Trium'virate, and took upon themselves the gov- 
ernment of the Roman Republic (B. C. 43). The Tni/m'virs 
caused their leading opponents to be cruelly massacred. Antony 
sacrificed his uncle, Lepidus yielded his brother, and Octavius 
allowed Cicero to be murdered by a band of assassins employed for 
that purpose by the other Triumvirs. 

24. Battles of Philippi. — Suicide of Brutus and Cassias. — When 
Octavius and Antony had finished their bloody work in Rome they 
marched against Brutus and Cassius, who had raised an army of 
more than 100,000 men in the Eastern Roman provinces. Brutus 
and Cassius were successively defeated in two battles at Philippi 
\Jil-ip' -pi\, in Macedonia, whereupon both committed suicide (B. 
C. 42). Octavius returned to Rome, while Antony remained in the 
East. 

25. Antony and Cleopatra. — Division of tlie Republic amon^ the Tri- 
umvirs. — Having passed over into Asia Minor, Antony was visited 
by the beautiful but wicked Cleopa'tra, Queen of Egypt, by whom 
he was so captivated that he went with her to Alexandria, where he 
abandoned himself to indolence, luxury, and vice, regardless of the 
calls of honor, interest, or ambition. In the meantune, Antony's 
wife, Ful'via, and his brother, Lu'cius, headed a rebellion in Italy, 
against Octavius; but the revolt was speedily suppressed. Return- 
ing to Italy, Antony met his wife, Fulvia, at Athens; and, bitterly 
reproaching her for the recent disturbances, left her on her death- 
bed, and went to Italy, where he effected a friendly arrangement 
with Octavius, and married his sister Octa'via. A new division of 
the Roman world followed. To Octavius was assigned the West; 
to Antony, the East; to Lepidus, Africa; and to Sextus Pompey, 
Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Peloponnesus. This partnership 
did not last. Octavius quarreled with Lepidus and Sextus Pompey, 
and seized their provinces; and Sextus Pompey fled to the East, 
where he was slain by one of Antony's lieutenants. Antony, having 
led an unsuccessful expedition against the Parthians, returned to 
Egypt, where he again plunged into luxury and dissipation, and 
became a slave to the charms of Cleopatra, on whom he bestowed 
several Roman provinces in Asia. 



I oo ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 

26. C'iAil War of Octarius and Antony, — Battle of Actiiun. — When 
Antony's wife, Octavia, went to meet her husband, he ordered her 
to return to Rome, and divorced her and married Cleopatra. Civil 
war followed between Octavius and Antony. Antony's fleet was 
defeated by the fleet of Octavius, in the Gulf of Ambra'sia, near the 
city of Actium \_ak'-sJie-um'\, in Epirus; whereupon Antony and 
Cleopatra fled to Egypt, and Antony's army, abandoned by its 
leader, submitted to Octavius (B. C. 31). 

27. Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra. — Eg'yjrt a Roman proyince. — 

After returning to Italy, Octavius pursued Antony and Cleopatra to 
Egypt. Antony, in despair, killed himself with his own sword; 
and Cleopatra, to avoid being carried a prisoner to Italy, put an 
end to her life by applying a poisonous reptile to her arm. Egypt 
submitted to Octavius, and became a Roman province (B. C. 30). 

28. Octavius sole master of the Roman worM. — End of the Roman 
Republic. — The battle of Actium made Octavius sole master of the 
Roman v/orld. Roman liberty was now gone forever; and the 
Roman people, who had lost all the virtues and republican spirit of 
their ancestors, made no attempt to restore the republican constitu- 
tion. The most illustrious citizens besought Octavius to take the 
government into his own hands; and the people, tired of the op- 
pression of the aristocracy, gladly placed themselves under the sway 
of a .single master, and the Roman Republic ended (B. C. 30). 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

SECTION ..—THE FLOURISHING PERIOD OF THE EMPIRE 

(B. C.'so-A. D. 180). 

1. Octavius sole ruler of the Roman world, with the title of Augus- 
tus. — The Roman Senate conferred upon Octavius all the powers of 
sovereignty, with the titles of Augustus (the Divine) and Imperdtor, 
or Emperor (chief commander) ; and gave his name to the sixth 
(now eighth) month, as the name of Julius Caesar had been given to 
the fifth (now seventh) month. He was afterwards made Perpetual 
Tribune of the People, which rendered his person sacred. He also 
engrossed the offices of Censor and Pontifex Maximus (religious 
superintendent). Although he held all the chief offices of state, he 
allowed the old republican forms to remain, and used his power 
wisely, governing with moderation and clemency, to the satisfaction 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. loi 

of all classes. The Senate passed all laws introduced by him, and 
was in return treated with respect by him ; while the multitude were 
kept in order by a succession of splendid games and shows, and 
liberal supplies of corn, wine, and oil. 

2. Extent and population of tlie Empire. — Tlie three ciyilizations. 

— After additional Roman conquests, a general peace prevailed 
throughout the vast Roman Empire, which now extended from the 
Atlantic on the west to the Euphrates on the east, and from the 
Rhine and the Danube on the north to the African deserts and the 
falls of the Nile on the south ; being about three thousand miles in 
extent from east to west, and about one thousand from north to 
south; entirely surrounding the Mediterranean sea, and embracing 
all Western and Southern Europe, Western Asia, and Northern 
Africa; and containing a population of about one hundred millions. 
Three civilizations prevailed in this vast dominion — the Latin, the 
Greek, and the Oriental. The Latin civilization prevailed in Italy 
and Western Europe ; the Greek civilization m Eastern Europe and 
Asia Minor; and the Oriental civilization in Egypt, Syria, and the 
other Asiatic provinces. 

3. Division of the Empire into Provinces. — The Standing: Army. — 

The Empire, exclusive of Italy, was divided into twenty-seven Prov- 
inces, which were ruled by Augustus and the Senate jointly. Those 
which were securely at peace were called Senatorial Provinces, and 
were governed by Proconsuls. Those which required the presence 
of an army were called Imperial Provinces, and were managed by 
the Emperor or his legates. The standing army which kept this 
vast dominion in subjection numbered 350,000 men; one-half con- 
sisting of twenty-five legions, each legion numbering nearly 7,000 
men, and the other half embracing the provincial auxiliaries. The 
City Cohorts, an armed police force, kept order in Rome ; and the 
10,000 Preeto'rian Guards protected the Emperor's person. 

4. Magrniftcence of the city of Rome. — Commerce and industry 
flourished; and Augustus could truly boast that he "found Rome 
of brick and left it of marble." The city contained a population 
of nearly three millions. The city was enclosed by walls about 
twenty miles in circumference, and the walls were pierced by thirty- 
eight gates. The most remarkable objects of the city were the 
Capitol, with its temples, the Senate-House, the Forum, the Campus 
Mar'tius, and the Fla'vian Amphitheatre. The great circus, or 
Circus Maximus — a place reserved for public games, races, and 
shows — was a most magnificent structure, and was capable of con- 



102 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

taining 200,000 spectators. The Flavian Amphitheatre — whose ruins 
are known as the Colise'um — could seat about 80,000 persons. In 
the arena of the amphitheatre were exhibited the fights of the gladi- 
ators, which the Romans viewed with savage delight, together with 
races and combats of wild beasts. Theatres and public baths were 
erected by the Emperors to compensate the people for the loss of 
liberty. The Forum, or place of public assembly, and the Temple 
of Janus, whose doors were only closed when Rome was at peace, 
may be mentioned. The Campus Martius was the place for elec- 
tions of magistrates, reviews of troops, and registration of citizens. 
The Fan'theon, or Temple of All the Gods, erected by Augustus, 
and numerous aqueducts, may also be named. 

5. Eoinaii literature of the An^ustau Ag:c. — Virgil, Horace, Ovid. — 
livy. — During the latter years of the Roman Republic there were 
several great Roman writers. These were Sallust, the historian 
oi t\\Q Jugurthine JVar and the Conspiracy of Catiline; Corne'lius 
Ne'pos, a celebrated biographer; Lucre'tius, a didactic poet; and 
Catul'lus, a lyric poet. Augustus was a great patron of literature 
and the arts, and his reign was the golden age of Roman literature. 
So many great writers flourished at this period that the most bril- 
liant period of any nation's literature has since been called its 
Augustaji Age. The most eminent poets of the Augustan Age of 
Rome were Virgil, the greatest of Roman poets and author of tlie 
epic called the yEne'id ; Horace, the great Roman lyric poet, who 
wrote odes, satires, and humorous epistles ; and O'vid, also a great 
poet, who wrote mythological stories (metamorphoses), and who 
was banished by Augustus to the rude shores of the Euxine sea. 
During this period flourished also the elegiac poets, Tibul'lus and 
Proper'tius; and Ti'tus Liv'ius (Liv'y) — the greatest of Roman 
historians — author of a History of Rome in 142 books, of which 
only thirty-five remain. 

6. Birth of Clirist-jWhile Augustus was peacefully ruling over a 
hundred million pagans and polytheists, there occurred within the 
Eastern limits of his Empire an event destined to work a wonder- 
ful change in the future condition of the world. This event was the 
birth of Jesus Christ — the founder of a great monotheistic religion, 
which was eventually to displace the pagan and polytheistic religions 
of the Roman world, and to become the universal religion of the 
Aryan races inhabiting Europe.^ Jesus Christ was born in the year 
4 B. C. — according to our common era — in the little village of 
Bethlehem, in Judaea, about five miles from Jerusalem ; during the 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 



103 



reign of Herod the Great, tributary king (tetrarch) of Judaea, under 
the Romans. 

7. German rictory over the Romans. — A few years after the birth 
of Christ (A. D. 9), the Germans, under the leadership of the valiant 
Hermann, or Armin'ius, cut to pieces a Roman army under Va'nis 
in the German forests. Varus in despair committing suicide. The 
loss of this army was a terrible blow to the Emperor Augustus, who, 
in paroxysms of grief, exclaimed: "Varus! Varus! restore me my 
legions! " This victory secured the independence of Germany. A 
monument has recently been erected on the site of Hermann's vic- 
tory. After a remarkably quiet and prosperous reign of forty-four 
years, the Emperor Augustus died in the year 14 A. D. 

8. Reign of Tiberius (A. D. 14-37.)— Sejamis.— Crucifixion of Christ. 
— His relig-ion. — Augustus was succeeded as Emperor by his step- 
son, Tibe'rius, a cruel despot, who caused his nephew German'icus 
and many nobles to be put to death. His trusted minister and 
favorite, Seja'nus, equally cruel and depraved, persuaded Tiberius 
to retire to the island of Caprce'a, near Naples, where the Emperor 
abandoned himself to vice and debauchery; while Sejanus was 
ruling with the utmost cruelty and despotism in Rome, causing 
many to be put to death. Sejanus was finally put to death for con- 
spiring against the Emperor, his relatives sharing his fate; and 
Tiberius died after a reign of twenty-three years (A. D. 37). It 
was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus Christ was crucified on 
Mount Calvary, under the prastorship of Pontius Pilate, the Roman 
governor of Judcea (A. D. 29). His great apostle, St. Paul (Saul of 
Tarsus) — after teaching the new faith at Antioch, where the disciples 
of Christ were first called Christians — carried the gospel through 
Asia Minor and Greece; and Christianity rapidly spread among 
the Jews, and also among the Eastern, or Greek, and the Western, 
or Latin, Gentiles. The commingling of the Hebrew, Greek, and 
Latin civilizations — the result of the conquests of Alexander the 
Great and the Romans — brought about the propagation and final 
triumph of this beneficent monotheistic religion. Christianity was 
powerfully aided by the existence of the Roman Empire — the union 
of many polytheistic nations under one government. 

9. Rei^ of Caligula (A. D. 37-41.) — The next Emperor was Caius 
Caesar, the unworthy son of the worthy Germanicus, and bettei 
known as Calig'ula. Like his predecessor, Caligula was a detestable 
tyrant and a wicked monster. He caused the prisoners in Rome to 
be thrown to wild beasts, for the mere pleasure of seeing them 



104 



ANCIENT HI ST OR V. 



tortured and torn to pieces. He often caused those who dined with 
him to be put to death. He wished that the whole Roman people 
had but one head, that he might chop it off at one blow. He 
furnished his favorite horse, Incita'tus, with a marble stable, fed him 
with gilded oats, invited him to the imperial table, and his death 
only prevented him from making the animal Consul. After a reign 
of four years, Caligula was murdered by his own guards (A. D. 41). 

10. Reigii of Claudius (A. D. 41-54). — Clau'dius, brother of Ger- 
manicus and uncle of Caligula, was then proclaimed Emperor by 
the Praetorian Guards. During the reign of Claudius, the Romans 
under Au'lus Plau'tius gained great victories in Britain; and Carac'- 
tacus, the British chief, was carried a prisoner to Rome. Claudius 
was a perfect idiot, ruled by his wife Messali'na and unworthy favor- 
ites ; but he finally caused Messalina to be put to death, and married 
his niece, Agrippi'na. After inducing Claudius to appoint Nero, 
her son by a former marriage, as his successor, Agrippina caused the 
Emperor to be poisoned (A. D. 54). 

11. Reign of Nero (A. D. 54-68). — Burning of Rome. — Persecution 
of the Christians. — Nero was proclaimed Emperor by the Praetorian 
Guards and the army, and this choice was confirmed by the Senate. 
Nero likewise gave way to his cruel and tyrannical nature. At 
length, his mother, Agrippina, seeing herself neglected, conspired 
to have the purple bestowed on Britan'nicus, the son of Claudius; 
but Nero caused both Agrippina and Britannicus to be put to death. 
Nero also caused Bur'rhus, his minister; Sen'eca, the philosopher; 
and Lu'can, the poet, to be put to death. Nero's first wife, Octa'- 
via, was divorced and murdered, and his second wife, Poppse'a, was 
killed by a kick from her husband. The virtuous Cor'bulo, who 
defeated the Parthians, was also put to death. During this reign, 
the Jews rose in rebellion against the Roman power; and in Britain 
the Ice'ni, under their heroic queen, Boadice'a, took London and 
massacred 70,000 Romans, but the Romans under Sueto'nius Pauli'- 
nus afterward defeated Boadicea and recaptured London, killing 
80,000 of the Iceni, whereupon Boadicea, in despair, committed sui- 
cide (A. D. 64). In the year 64 A. D., a frightful conflagration of 
nine days destroyed the greater part of the city of Rome; and it 
was generally believed that tlie fire was kindled by Nero's secret 
orders. While the fire was raging, the Emperor, it is said, was sit- 
ting upon a high tower, smgmg to the music of his harp, T/ie De- 
struction of Troy. Nero caused Rome to be rebuilt more beautifully 
than before. He accused the Christians of causing the fire, and 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 10$ 

thousands of these unfortunate people were cruelly tortured and put 
to death, among whom were the apostles Peter and Paul. This was 
the first great persecution of the Christians. Nero's tyranny finally 
produced insurrections in Gaul and Spain, and the Praetorian Guards 
declared against the Emperor, who thereupon put an end to his life, 
after a reign of fourteen years (A. D. 68). Nero was the last of the 
Julian line of the Caesars. 

12. Reigns of Galba (A. D. 68-69), Otho (A. D. 69), and ViteUius 
(A. D. 69-70). — Nero was succeeded by the virtuous Galba, who, 
after a short reign of seven months, was overthrown and slain by 
the Praetorian Guards, who then raised their commander, O'tho, to 
the imperial purple (A. D. 69) ; but after a brief reign of three 
months, Otho was overthrown in battle by Vitel'lius, the commander 
of the Roman legions on the German frontier, and committed sui- 
cide (A. D. 69). ViteUius was then declared Emperor by the Sen- 
ate ; and, upon entering Rome, he caused over 4,000 of the Praetor- 
ian Guards to be put to death. ViteUius was noted for his gluttony, 
rapacity, and luxurious habits. In less than four months he spent a 
sum equal to seven millions sterling upon the luxuries of the table 
and for costly banquets. Many who dined with him were put to 
death, and many wealthy Roman citizens were deprived of their 
property, and even of their lives, by the cruel Emperor, who de- 
clared that he derived pleasure from tormenting his victims. On 
one occasion, when a man was condemned to death, he executed his 
sons with their father, for begging his life. kX last the Roman le- 
gions in Judaea proclaimed their general, Vespa'sian, Emperor; and, 
marching upon Rome, Vespasian took possession of the city, where- 
upon ViteUius was seized by his enemies and put to death, and his 
body was thrown into the Tiber, amid the execrations of the popu- 
lace (A. D. 70). 

13. Reign of Vespasian (A. D. 70-79.) — Destiniction of Jerusalem. 
— Britain. — Vespasian was hailed as Emperor by the Roman people. 
This wise and virtuous monarch did all in his power for the welfare 
of his subjects, by whom he was greatly beloved. He instituted 
many wise reforms, improved the administration of justice, and 
restored the discipline of the army and the authority of the Senate. 
He encouraged the arts and sciences, and beautified Rome with many 
splendid edifices, of which the Co Use' inn was the most remarkable. 
The Jews, who had risen in rebellion against the Roman power 
during Nero's reign, were subdued during Vespasian's reign, when 
they were destroyed as a nation. Jerusalem was taken by the 



io6 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Roman legions under Ti'tns, the son of Vespasian, after one of the 
most remarkable sieges on record, the Jews defending the Holy 
City with an army of 600,000 men. The city and the Temple were 
reduced to a heap of ruins by the conquering Romans; and many 
of the vanquished Jews fell by the swords of the Romans, or died 
by their own hands, while thousands were sold into slavery (A. D. 
70). Among those taken prisoners by the Romans was the great 
Jewish historian Josephus \_jo-se' -fus\, who wrote a complete history 
of the Jewish race in Greek. Ever since the destruction of Jeru- 
salem by Titus, the Jews have been scattered over every part of the 
earth. During Vespasian's reign, the Romans under Julius Agrico'la 
effected the final conquest of Britain (A. D. 72). Vespasian died 
after a reign of nine years (A. D. 79). 

14. Reign of Titus f A. D. 79-Sl). — Destruction of Hercnlaneum and 
Pompeii. — The noble Vespasian was succeeded as Emperor by his 
son Titus, the conqueror of Jerusalem. Upon becoming Emperor, 
Ti'tus abandoned his former dissipated habits, and became, like his 
father, a virtuous, wise, and just sovereign, having the welfare of his 
subjects at heart. On this account he was called ^'' the Delight of 
Mankind.'''' During the first year of the reign of Titus, the most 
terrible eruption of the volcano of Vesuvius ever known occurred, 
completely destroying the two great cities, Hercula'neum and 
Pompe'ii (A. D. 79). The elder Plin'y, the great naturalist, perished 
at the destruction of Pompeii. The good Titus died after a reign 
of two years (A. D. 81). 

15. Reig-n of Domitian (A. D. 81-9(>). — The good Titus was suc- 
ceeded as Emperor by his brother, Domitian \^do-niisK -e-an\ who 
soon became a hard-hearted tyrant. He ordered the second perse- 
cution of the Christians, and seized the estates of the wealthy to 
gratify his avarice. He undertook an unsuccessful campaign against 
the Da'cians, north of the Lower Danube. Domitian — the last of 
the Twelve Caesars — was assassinated, after a reign of fifteen years 
(A. D. 96). 

10. Reijrns of Nerva (A. D. 90-98), and Trajan (A. D. 9S-117).— 
Trajan's Eastern canipaig-ns. — The virtuous Nerva — the first of the 
Five Good Emperors — died after a reign of two years (A. D. 98). 
Trajan, a Spaniard — equally great as a statesman and a warrior — was 
one of the best of men, and the greatest of all the Roman Emperors ; 
but his reign was stained by the third persecution of the Christiatis, 
and St. Igna'tius, Bishop of Antioch, was torn to pieces in the 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 107 

Amphitheatre. Trajan subdued the Dacians north of the Danube, 
and made Dacia a Roman province ; for which he was honored with 
a most magnificent triumph, and the pubUc rejoicing and gladi- 
atorial combats continued 123 days. In Asia, Trajan conquered 
Armenia, and defeated the Parthians, capturing Seleucia and Ctes'- 
iphon, and conquering Mesopota'mia and the ancient Babylonia. 
To commemorate his victories, a great column was erected in the 
Forum. Trajan died in Cilicia, after a reign of nineteen years 
(A. D. 117). 

17. Reign of Adiian (A. D. 117-138).— Adrian's trarels.— A'drian 
— also a Spaniard and a good Emperor — tarnished his reign with 
\)a.^ fourth persecution of the Christians. Adrian, who was a great 
lover of peace, abandoned all the countries conquered by Trajan ; 
and spent thirteen years in traveling over his dominions — visiting 
Gaul, Spain, Germany, Britain, Greece, and the Roman provinces 
in Asia and Africa. He improved the city of Ebora'cum (now 
York), the capital of Britain; and caused a wall to be erected from 
the river Tyne to Solway Frith, to prevent the ravages of the Picts 
and Scots, of Caledo'nia (now Scotland), into Britain. Adrian 
died near Naples, after a quiet and prosperous reign of twenty-one 
years (A. D. 138). 

18. Reig-n of Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-161.) — Unbroken peace and 
prosperity. — The good and peaceful Titus Antoni'nus — on account 
of his mild and merciful reign — was called Antoninus Pius. The 
reign of this Emperor was the most happy and prosperous period that 
the Roman Empire had ever enjoyed, as peace prevailed throughout 
the whole Roman world. The virtuous Antoninus Pius suspended 
the persecutions of the Christians, and punished their persecutors. 
He devoted himself to the welfare of his subjects, and protected the 
people of the provinces from official oppression. After a tranquil 
and prosperous reign of twenty-three years, the good Antoninus Pius 
died (A. D. 161). 

19. Reign of Marcns Aurelius (A. D. 161-180).— War agrainst the 
Marconiaimi. — Marcus Aure'lius Antoninus, the philospher — the 
author of ''Meditations'" — was the last of the Five Good Emperors. 
His son-in-law, Lu'cius Ve'rus, defeated the Parthians; and Marcus 
Aurelius himself conquered the Marcoman'ni, a fierce German tribe 
of barbarians, after a bloody war of five years. During the reign 
of Marcus Aurelius occurred the fifth persecution of the Christians; 
and Justin Martyr was beheaded, and St. Polycarp — Bishop of 
Smyrna, and the friend and disciple of St. John — was burned at the 



I o 8 ANCIENT HIS TOR V. 

Stake. The mild and beneficent Marcus Aurelius died at Vindo- 
bo'na (now Vienna), after a reign of nineteen years (A. D. i8o); 
and with his death the glory of the Roman Empire passed away. 
Most of his successors died violent deaths. 

20. l)(»cliiie of Rouiau manners. — Decline and extinction of Roman 
literature. — In the meantime the Roman provinces of Africa, Spain, 
Gaul, and Britain had become thoroughly Latinized, and the peo- 
ple of the whole empire were called Rouians. During this period 
Roman military virtue had entirely disappeared. The long period 
of general peace had unfitted the people for war; and the Romans, 
enervated by luxury, ease, and wealth, had become effeminate. 
Roman literature began to decline after the Augustan Age. Among 
poets were Ph^drus, a Thracian ; the epic poet, Lu'can ; the satiri- 
cal poets, Per'sius and Ju'venal ; and Mar'tial, the last great 
Roman poet — all of whom flourished in the first century of the 
Christian era. During the same century lived Sen'eca, the greatest 
Roman philosopher ; Plin'y, the renowned naturalist, who perished 
at the destruction of Pompeii ; and Quintil'ian, the illustrious 
rhetorician. The great Roman historian, Tacitus \Jas'-e-tus\ — who 
recorded the events of the Roman Empire in his History and An- 
nals, and described the customs and manners of the Germans — lived 
in the second century after Christ. Among Greek writers of this 
period were the Jewish historian, Jose'phus, and the illustrious Greek 
biographer, Plu'tarch, who wrote the Lives of the eminent states- 
men of Greece and Rome, whom he compared. During this period 
were also written the Gospels and the New Testament. 

SECTION II.— PERIOD OF DECLINE AND MILITARY DESPOTISM 
(A. D. 1S0-312). 

1. Reigii of Commodns (A. I). 180-192). — Marcus Aurelius was suc- 
ceeded as Emperor by his son, Com'modus, who was noted for his 
vices and was a cruel tyrant. He fought with the gladiators in the 
Amphitheatre, where he concjuered seven hundred and fifty times, 
and consequently styled \\\m!~^Q\i '■'■ Conqueror of a Thousand Gladi- 
atorsy Commodus — under whom the Empire rapidly declined — 
was finally assassinated, and his body was cast i^'.ito the Tiber (A. D. 
192). 

2. Rei^nis of Pertinax (A. D. 192-193) and Didius Julianns (A. D. 
193). — Power of the Praitorians. — I'he virtuous Emperor Per'tinax 
(A. D. 192-193) was murdered by the insolent Praetorian Guards, 
who then offered the Empire for sale to the highest bidder, and a 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 



109 



wealthy Senator named Did'ius Julia'nus bid off at a sum equal to 
fifteen million dollars. This disgraceful transaction raised up sev- 
eral rivals, one of whom — Septim'ius Seve'rus — marched to Rome 
and was made Emperor, and Didius Julianus was put to death 
(A. D. 193.) 

3. Rei^ of Septiinius Sererus (A. D. 193-211). — His Campai^s. — 
Septimius Severus disarmed the Prsstorian Guards, and banished 
them beyond 100 miles from Rome. He next defeated and killed 
his rival, Pescen'nius Ni'ger, at Issus, in Syria; and then overthrew 
his other rival, Clo'dius Albi'nus, at Lyons, in Gaul, and caused him 
to be put to death. Septimius Severus next defeated the Parthians, 
taking Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Babylon ; and drove the savage 
Picts and Scots out of Britain. Severus rebuilt the wall between the 
Clyde and Forth rivers, to prevent the incursions of the Picts and 
Scots into Britain. ' He died at Ebora'cum (now York), in Britain, 
after a reign of nearly eighteen years (A. D. 211). 

4. Reig-u of Caracalla (A. D. 211-217). — Extension of Romau citi- 
zenship. — Septimius Severus left his empire to his sons, Caracal'la 
and Gae'ta ; but Caracalla killed his brother in his mother's arms, 
and became sole Emperor (A. D. 211). The cruel and tyrannical 
Caracalla (A. D. 21 1-2 17) — who caused 20,000 persons to be mas- 
sacred because they were '"'Gseta's friends," and whose only good 
act was to extend the rights of Roman citizenship to all free inhab- 
itants of the Empire — was assassinated. 

5. Reig^ns of Macrinus (A.D. 217-218) and HeUo^abalns (A. D. 218- 
222). — Caracalla's rival and successor, Macri'nus (A. D. 217-218), 
was also assassinated. Tlie Syrian youth, Heliogab'alus, the next 
Emperor (A. D. 218-222) — who had been a priest of the Syrian 
sun-god — was an extravagant sensualist, who introduced Syrian 
manners and worship into Rome, squandered immense sums on the 
luxuries of the table, created a senate of women to arrange the fash- 
ions of dress, and raised his horse to the office of Consul. He was 
assassinated by the soldiers, and his body was cast into the Tiber. 

6. Reign of Alexander Sererus (A. D. 222-235). — New Persian Em- 
pire of the Sassaiiidse. — The good Emperor Alexander Seve'rus (A. D. 
222-235) — the cousin of Heliogabalus — was a mild and generous 
ruler, and a great reformer and friend of learning. He showed 
favor to the Christians, and admitted a bust of Christ among the 
images in his domestic place of worship. During his reign the New 
Persians had overthrown the Parthian Empire and established the 
New P'ersian Eitipire of the Sassmiidce (A. D. 226). The Persian 



1 1 o ANCIENT HIS TOR V. 

king Artaxerx'es attempted to seize all the Roman provinces in Asia, 
but was defeated by Alexander Severus near the Euphrates (A. D. 
232). The good Alexander Severus was murdered by his soldiers 
(A. D. 235). 

7. Rt'igus of Maximiu (A. D. 235-238), Gordian (A. D. 238-244), 
ami Philip tJsc Ara!)iau (A. D. 244-249). — Great confusion followed, 
during which the soldiers raised up and murdered Emperors at plea- 
sure. The cruel and tyrannical Max'imin (A. D. 235-238) — under 
whom occurred the sixHi peiscciition of tJie CJiristiaiis — and the two 
Gor'dians (A. D. 23S)., Pupie'nus and Balbi'nus (A. D. 23S), and 
a third Gordian (A. D. 238-244), thus perished. Philip the Ara- 
bian (A. D. 244-249) — who signalized his reign by a magnificent 
celebration of the one-thousandth anniversary of Rome, consisting 
of splendid games, shows, and gladiatorial combats (A. D. 248) — 
was killed in battle against his rebellious rival and successor, De'cius. 

8. Rt'igu of Decixis (A. D. 249-251). — Deciaii Persecution. — The 
Goths. — Decius (A. D. 249-251) tarnished his reign by the great 
sevcntli pc}-sccution of tlie Christians, thousands of whom, in differ- 
ent parts of the Empire, were driven from their homes, and put to 
death in the most cruel manner, and many fled for refuge to the 
mountams and deserts; and the Bishops of Jerusalem, Antioch, and 
Rome died the death of martyrs. Decius was defeated in two great 
battles with the Goths — a fierce Scandinavian tribe, who now in- 
vaded the Roman Empire for the first time and ravaged Mcesia and 
Thrace — and was slain in the second battle. 

9. Reigns of (Jalliis (A. D. 251-253), JEiuiliaims (A. D. 253), and 
Taleriau (A. I). 253-260). — Gal'lus (A. D. 251-253) — under whom 
occurred the ciglitli persecution of the Christians — and his rival and 
successor, yEmilia'nus (A. D. 253), were murdered by the soldiers. 
The virtuous Vale'rian (A. D. 253-260) — under whom occurred the 
nintli persecution of the Christians, when St. Cy'prian, Archbishop 
of Cartilage, suffered martyrdom — was defeated and taken prisoner 
in S\ ria by the valiant Persian king Sa'por, and remained a captive 
in Perhia the remaining seven years of his life. 

10. Reign of tialliemxs (A. D. 2G0-2G8 ), and the Thirty Tyrants. — 
Odenatus and Zenobia. — The Roman Empire now seemed about fall- 
ing to i)ieces. The Goths and Scythians ravaged the Roman prov- 
inces on the Danube, and in the East the New Persian Empire of 
the Sassan'idse attempted to seize all the Roman possessions in Asia. 
Nineteen competitors appeared for the throne; so that this period 
is known as the Age of the Thirty Tyrants. Gallie'nus, Valerian's 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. HI 

son and successor (A. D. 260-268), was assassinated: and all his 
rivals suffered violent deaths. The most powerful of these rivals was 
Odenatus, Prince of Palmy'ra, whom Gallienus had made his part- 
ner in the Empire, assigning him the Eastern Roman provinces. 
Odena'tus was succeeded by his widow, Zeno'bia, the Queen of 
the East ; and Palmyra became the seat of a flourishing kingdom. 

11. Reis-iis of Flavins Claudius (A. D. 2(>8-270) and Anrelian (A. ». 
270-275J. — Fall of Zenobia. — The fall of the Roman Empire was de- 
layed by a succession of able Emperors. Fla'vius Claudius (A. D. 
268-270) defeated the Goths and Vandals with frightful slaughter. 
The able and virtuous Aure'lian (A. D. 270-275) reunited the Em- 
pire and restored its strength ; ceded the province of Dacia to the 
Goths and Vandals ; and in the East overthrew the new Kingdom 
of Palmyra, carried Zenobia, the Queen of the East, a captive to 
Rome, put her friend and advisor, the Greek critic, Longi'nus, to 
death, and laid Palmyra in ruins (A. D. 273); but Aurelian was 
finally murdered by his troops. 

12. Reigns of Tacitus (A. D. 275% Florian (A. D. 275), Probus 
(A. D. 275-282), and Cams (A. D. 2S2-2S3;. — The good Emperor 
Tacitus (A. D. 275) died after a reign of seven months. His 
brother and successor, Flo'rian (A. D. 275), was murdered by the 
troops. Florian's rival and successor, Pro'bus (A. D. 275-282) — 
after defeating the Germans in Gaul, and the Goths, Vandals, and 
Sarmatians on the northern frontier — was killed by his own troops. 
The next Emperor, Ca'rus (A. D. 282-283) — after defeating the 
Sarmatians on the North, and the New Persians in the East — was 
killed ill his tent by lightning. 

13. Reign of Dioclesian (A. D. 284-305). — Maxiniiau and two 
Caesars. — Dioclesian's persecution. — His abdication. — Nume'rian and 
Can'nus — the sons and successors of Carus — were soon assassinated 
by the troops, who proclaimed Diocle'sian Emperor (A. D. 284). 
Dioclesian 's parents were slaves, and he received his name from 
Diocle'a, his native town in Dalma'tia. He had risen from office to 
office, and owed his elevation entirely to his abilities. Dioclesian 
broke the power of the soldiery and made the imperial authority 
absolute. He took as his partner Maxim'ian, a brave and able 
soldier, but an ignorant and cruel barbarian. Dioclesian governed 
the East, establishing his capital at Nicome'dia in Asia Minor, and 
took Gale'rius as his subordinate colleague, or CcEsar. Maximian 
'■uled the West from Mil'an, his capital, and chose Constantius 
Chlorus \_c n-s tan's he -7is klo'-rus'] as his Ccesar. Revolts were 



112 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

quelled — in Egypt by Dioclesian, in Africa by Maximian, in Britain 
by Constantius Chlorus ; while Galerius defeated the New Persians. 
The end of Dioclesian's reign was signalized by the great tenth per- 
secution of the Christians, who perished by rack and axe in every 
portion of the Empire ; the churches were burnt, the Scriptures 
given to the flames, but still their numbers increased. After a reign 
of twenty-one years, Dioclesian abdicated, in the presence of a vast 
multitude, and retired to private life ; and Maximian resigned his 
power the same day (A. D. 305). Dioclesian survived his abdi- 
cation nine years. To those who afterwards asked him to resume 
the imperial purple, he replied : "If you should see the cabbages I 
raise in my garden, you would not ask me to take a throne." 

14. Reigii of Constantiiie the Great (A. D. 306-337).— His rivals 
aud liis conversion. — After the abdication of Dioclesian and 
Maximian, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were recognized as 
Emperors, and each took a subordinate colleague or Ccesar (A. 
D. 305). Constantius Chlorus died at Ebora'cum (now York), 
in Britain, and was succeeded by his son, Constantme — after- 
wards surnamed the Great. A period of great confusion and 
sanguinary civil wars followed. Galerius and the two Caesars re- 
fused to recognize Constantine's claims, and very soon the Roman 
Empire was divided among six competitors, among whom were 
Maximian and his son, Maxen'tius; but Constantine finally pre- 
vailed over all his rivals and became sole Emperor, and under him 
Christianity became the established religion of the Empire, after he 
had become the first Christian Emperor, and Constantinople 
(formerly Byzan'tium) became the capital of the Roman world. 

SECTION III.— CONSTANTINE THE GREAT AND THE TRIUMPH 
OF CHRISTIANITY (A. D. 306-364). 

1. Kise and progress of Christianity. — Tlie Ten Great Persecntions. 

— We have already noted the birth of Jesus Christ — the founder of 
Christianity — during the reign of Augustus; his crucifixion during 
the reign of Tiberius ; the propagation of his doctrines and teach- 
ings by his great Apostle, St. Paul ; the rapid growth of Christianity 
throughout the whole Roman world during three centuries ; and 
the Ten Great Persecutions of the Christians, beginning with 
that under Nero, and ending with that under Dioclesian. With 
every persecution Christianity grew stronger and stronger, and 
"the blood of the martyrs became the seed of the Church." 
The Romans were very tolerant of diverse faiths in the Empire, 
and the various pagan and polytheistic religions were unmolested 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 



113 



by the Roman Emperors ; but the Christians — whose virtues 
and purity kept them aloof from those around them in that corrupt 
age, and who held their meetings in secret — were looked upon 
with suspicion; and the persecutions were for political rather 
than for religious reasons. This accounts for the persecutions of 
the Christians by good Emperors like Trajan, Adrian, Marcus 
Aurelius, Decius, Valerian, and Dioclesian. 

2. Crtustaiitine's conversion. — Tlie Labarwm. — Triumph of Cliristi- 
anity. — Galerius, just before his death, had issued an edict of tolera- 
tion to the Christians, and in 313 Constantine the Great also 
granted toleration by the Edict of Afi/afi. In 312 — according to a 
well-known legend — Constantine, while marching against Max- 
entius, is said to have seen a luminous cross in the heavens, with 
the inscription in Greek: ^' En touto nika" (" By this conquer"). 
This vision made a great impression upon Constantine and his 
army ; and the Emperor thereupon became a convert to Christi- 
anity, and exhorted his subjects to follow his example. Constan- 
tine 's vision is said to have been followed by a remarkable dream 
the next night, in which Christ appeared before the Emperor and 
directed him to frame a standard under which his legions would 
march to certain victory. This was the origin of the famous. 
Lab' arum, afterwards borne by the Christian Emperors, and which 
scattered dismay among the opposing legions. The Labarum had 
at the top a monogram of the mystic X, representing at once the 
cross and the initial of the Greek name for Christ. Constantine 
defeated Maxentius in a desperate battle at the Mil'vian Bridge and 
entered Rome in triumph, Maxentius being drowned in the Tiber, 
Constantine only became sole master of the Roman world after his 
brother-in-law and last rival, Licinius, had been defeated at Byzan- 
tium and put to death; thus ending eighteen years of confusion and 
civil war. Constantine's victory over his pagan rivals marked the 
complete triumph of Christianity over the paganism of the Roman 
world (A. D. 324). 

3. The Council of Nice and its decisions. — Christianity, the state- 
religion. — Constantine summoned a Council of the Christian Church 
at Ni'ce, in Asia Minor, which was attended by numerous bishops 
and deacons, and over which the Emperor presided. Christianity 
was now established on a firm basis as the state-religion of the 
Roman Empire (A. D. 325). Constantine exempted the Chris- 
tian priesthood from taxation, and proclaimed Sunday a day of rest. 
With public money, Constantine erected new Christian churches 



1 1 4 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 

and repaired the old ones. The Council of Nice condemned the 
doctrines of Ari'us of Alexandria, who denied Christ's divinity, and 
declared the doctrines of Athana'sius, the other Alexandrian ecclesi- 
astic — who maintained Christ's equality with God the Father and 
the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity — as the true, or orthodox, faith 
of the Catholic, or universal, Church. The Goths, Vandals, and 
Lombards, who had become Arian Christians, were excommunicated 
as heretics. 

4. t'oustantiue makes Coustantiuople the imperial capital, and reor- 
g'aimes the Empire, — Constantine's conversion did not prevent him 
from committing some great crimes — such as the murder of his wife, 
Fausta, and his noble son, Crispus. After defeating the Goths and 

. Sarmatians, Constantine removed the capital of the Roman world 
from Rome to Byzantium, which he called New Rome, but which 
was thereafter called Constantinople (city of Constantine), in honor 
of the great Emperor (A. D. ^2>^)- Constantine reorganized the 
Empire, which was again as extensive and powerful as in the time 
of Augustus; and on the frontiers was maintained a standing army 
of 645,000 men, composed of barbarian mercenaries, Roman citi- 
zens being averse to military service. After a reign of thirty-one 
years, Constantine the Great died at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor 
(A. D. 337). 

5. Coustantine's sons and snccessors (A. D. 33.7-361). — In accord- 
. ance with Constantine's orders, the Roman world was divided 

among his three sons and two nephews ; but after sixteen years of 
confusion, anarchy, and civil war, Constantius II. became sole mas- 
ter of the Roman world, after all his rivals and several usurpers had 
^ perished (A. D. 2>S2>)- ^Vhile Constantius II. was warring with the 
. New Persians in the East, his cousin, Julian — who gained great vic- 
tories over the German tribes in Gaul, near Troyes, at Sens, and at 
Strasburg — was proclaimed Emperor by his army, and a civil war 
was only prevented by the death of Constantius II. (A. D. 361.) 
6- Reign of Julian the Apostate (A. D. 3(>l-363).— -Julian's educa- 
tion at Athens gave him a fondness for the pagan philosophy and 
. religion of the Grecians ; and when he became Emperor he re- 
, nounced the Christian religion and became a pagan, acquiring from 
, that circumstance the surname of the Apostate. Julian, however, 
was a wise and just sovereign, and did not violently persecute the 
Christians, as he allowed all his subjects the same right to opinion 
which he claimed for himself; but he attacked the religion of Christ 
in writing, and endeavored to bring it into disrepute by ridicule. 



THE R OMAN EMPIRE. 1 1 5 

It is said that Julian's attempt to disprove the prophecy of Christ 
by rebuilding the Temple at Jerusalem was frustrated by the explo- 
sion of fire-balls from the earth, killing or driving away the work- 
men, and believed to have been by miraculous interposition. Julian 
lost his life in an unfortunate expedition against the New Persians 
(A. D. i^i). 

7. Rei^ of Jovian (A. D. 363-364). — Julian's successor, the vir- 
tuous Jo'vian, gave up some Roman territory in a humiliating peace 
with the New Persians, and restored Christianity, which religion 
was adopted by the people, who deserted the heathen temples and 
the heathen priests. After a reign of seven months, the good Jovian 
was accidently suffocated by the fumes of burning charcoal, while 
sleeping in a damp room (A. D. 364). 

8. The Fathers of the Christian Chitrcli. — The Christian writers of 
the first five or six centuries are called Fathers of the Christian 
Church. Some wrote in Greek, others in Latin. On their works 
depend the traditional doctrines of the Catholic Church. The 
nearer they stand to the time of the Apostles, the greater is their 
authority. 

Justin Martyr (A. D. 103-165) — An early Greek Father in 
Palestine — wrote several works in defence of Christianity, and 
suffered martyrdom at Rome under Marcus Aurelius. 

Clement of Alexandria (A. D. 150-220) — who flourished at 
Alexandria, in Egypt — was a Greek Father, and wrote several great 
works in favor of Christianity. 

Tertul'lian (A. D. 160-240) — a native of Carthage — was the 
first Latin Father, and his chief work was Mx?, Apology for Christians. 

O'rigen (A. D. 185-254) — who also flourished at Alexandria 
— was a Greek Father and wrote commentaries on the Scriptures. 

St. Cy'prian (A. D. 200-258) — Archbishop of Carthage — was a 
Latin Father and author of a work called Unity of the Church, and 
suffered martyrdom during Valerian's reign. 

Lactantius \_lak-tan' -she-US'] (A. D. 260-325) — born in Africa — 
was a Latin Father, who wrote Divine Institutes and other works, 
and because of his eloquence was called the "Christian Cicero." 

St. Athana'sius (A. D. 296-373) — Patriarch of Alexandria, in 
Egypt — was a Greek Father and a native of Alexandria, and the 
great defender of the doctrines of the Trinity and Christ's divinity ; 
and his opinions on these points were declared by the Council of 
Nice, summoned by Constantine the Great, to be the orthodox 
doctrines of the Church. 



'1 1 6 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

St. Chrys'ostom (A. D. 347-407) — Patriarch of Constantinople 
— was a Greek Father and a native of Antioch, and was called 
Chrysostom, which signifies golden-mouth, on account of his elo- 
quence. 

St. Ambrose (A. D. 340-397) — Archbishop of Milan — was a 
Latin Father and a native of Gaul, and vindicated the authority of 
the priesthood, even against emperors, by condemning the Emperor 
Theodosius the Great to a long and weary j^enance for his massacre 
of the Thessalo'nians. 

St. Jerome (A. D. 345-430) — the guardian of Monasticisra — was 
a Latin Father and a native of Dalmatia, and his chief work was a 
translation of the Bible into Latin, known as the Vulgate version. 

St. Au'gustine (A. D. 354-430) — Bishop of Hippo, in Africa, 
and the greatest of all the Christian Fathers — was a native of 
Numidia, and is known as the Father of Latin Thcologv, his 
chief works being On tlie Grace of Christ, Original Sin, the City 
of God, and Confessions (an autobiography). St. Augustine's doc- 
trine of man's inability of himself to attain salvation was accepted 
as the orthodox doctrine of the Church ; while the opposite doctrine 
of Pela'gius, a British monk of Africa, was condemned as heretical. 

Other writers were Euse'bius (270-338), the church historian, 
and Por'phyry (233-305), the bitter foe of Christianity. 

SECTION IV.— THE NORTHERN BARBARIANS AND FALL OF THE 
WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE (A. D. 364-476). 

1. Reig'iis of Talentiiiiau and Valens (A. D. 3G4-378). — Barbarian 
inroads. — Valentin'ian, Jovian's successor, divided the Roman Em- 
pire, retaining the Western provinces for himself, and assigning the 
Eastern to his brother Va'lens. Thus the Roman world was divided 
into the Eastern and Western Empires, although they were after- 
wards transiently reunited. Valentinian made Mil'an his capital, 
while Valens held his court at Constantinople. The Roman domin- 
ions were now severely harassed on all sides by the inroads of 
barbarians. The Scots and Picts ravaged Britain ; the Saxons be 
came the terror of the Northern seas ; the Franks and Alleman'ni 
devastated Gaul ; and the Goths desolated Thrace. The Western 
Emperor Valentinian — who defeated theAUemanni and checked the 
barbarians on all sides — died A. D. 375. The Goths were driven 
from Dacia by the Huns, a fierce Asiatic tribe, who had moved 
westward into Europe. With the permission of the Eastern Empe- 
ror Valens, the Goths then settled in Thrace; but when famine 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 



117 



attacked them, they plundered and ravaged Thrace, Macedonia, 
and Thessaly, and defeated and killed Valens in the great battle of 
Adrianopleu (A. D. 378). 

2. Reigus of Gratiaii and Theodosius the Great (A. D. 375-395). — 
Suppression .of pagaai.sin.—Valentinian's successor as Emperor of the 
West was Gratian \^gni-s]ie-a}i\ ; and Valens was succeeded in the 
East by Theodosius \Jhe-o-dd -she-iis\ a Spaniard, who closed the 
war with the Goths by settling one part of that nation in the region 
of the Danube, and enlisting another portion in the Roman army 
as soldiers. /Theodosius — surnamed the Great — cruelly persecuted 
the pagans. 1 The pagans of Alexandria, in Egypt, having attacked 
the Christians of that city, Theodosius ordered all the pagan temples 
in the city to be pulled down. He afterward ordered all the pagan 
temples throughout his Empire to be destroyed, and forbade pagan- 
ism under severe penalties ; and Christianity fully triumphed over 
the ancient paganism.! He was a passionate prince, and on one oc- 
casion he caused 7,000 citizens of Thessaloni'ca to be massacred, 
because they had slain his governor — a crime for which the coura- 
geous Archbishop Ambrose of Milan refused to allow him to enter 
a church until die had confessed his guilt, which penance Theodo- 
sius willingly underwent. The severity of the Western Emperor, 
Gratian, to his pagan subjects, produced an insurrection in Gaul 
headed by Maximi'nus, and Gratian was defeated and killed near 
Paris (A. D. t^^t^. Maximinus then usurped the throne of the 
West, but was defeated and killed by Theodosius the Great, and Val- 
entinian II. became Emperor of the West (A. D. t,Z'^). Valentinian 
II. was murdered by the Gaul Arbogas'tes (A. D. 392), and the 
throne of the West was usurped by Euge'nius, who was defeated and 
slain in battle \v.ith Theodosius, who finally reunited the Eastern 
and Western Empires, and became sole master of the Roman world 
(A. D. 394). Four months later, Theodosius the Great died at 
Milan, after appointing his elder son, Arca'dius, Emperor of the 
East, and his younger son, Hono'rius, Emperor of the West (A. D. 
395). This was the final division of the Roman world into the 
Eastern, or Greek, and the Western, or Latin, Empires. 

3. Keigus of Arcadius and Houorius (A. D. 395-423). — Rome pil- 
laged by the Gotlis. — Soon after the accession of Arcadius and Hon- 
orius, the Goths, under their king, Al'aric, began another war 
against the Romans, ravaged Greece, invaded Italy, compelled 
Honorius to flee from his capital, and besieged him in Asta; but 
Stilicho \jtil' -e-ko\ the valiant Vandal general of Honorius, de- 



1 1 8 ANCIENT HIS TOR V. 

feated the Goths with great slaughter at Pollentia \_pol-le)i she-a\ in 
Northern Italy. Alaric then marched toward Rome, and was only- 
induced to withdraw from Italy by the payment of a heavy ransom. 
Soon afterward the Goths, Vandals, Sueves, Alans, and Burgun'- 
dians, under the warlike Radagai'sus, devastated Northern Italy, 
and besieged Flor'e'nce ; but the barbarian besiegers- were block- 
aded by Stilicho, and finally compelled to surrender; whereupon 
Radagaisus was put to death, and his followers were sold as slaves 
(A. D. 406). Two years later, the ungrateful and jealous Honorius 
caused Stilicho to be assassinated, and appointed Olym'pius as his 
successor. Honorius caused most of the barbarians in Italy to be 
cruelly massacred, whereupon 30,-000 Gothic soldiers in the Roman 
pay revolted, and Alaric again invaded Italy and besieged Rome, 
which was saved from capture by the payment of a large ransom. 
As Honorius refused to comply with the treaty, Alaric again laid 
siege to Rome, and compelled the city to surrender and gave it up 
to plunder (A. D. 410). After Rome had suffered six days from 
the fury of the conquering Goths, Alaric and his followers marched 
into Southern Italy, where Alaric died (A. D. 410). 

4. Reigrn of Valentiiiiaii m. (A. 1). 423-455). — Yisigotks, Vandals, 
and Hims. — Honorius died A. D., 423, and was succeeded as 
Emperor of the West by Valentinian III. The Goths soon retired 
from Italy, and the Vis'igoths migrated to Spain, where they 
founded a kingdom. The Vandals, under Gen'seric, passed over 
from Spain into Africa, conquered the Roman provinces there, and 
established a kingdom which lasted more than a century (A. D. 
439). The Romans having abandoned Britain,, that island was 
invaded by the piratical Angles and Saxons (A. D. 447). About 
the same time, At'tila, King of the Huns — a powerful and rude 
Asiatic tribe — was spreading terror and desolation wherever he 
appeared. Attila — called '■^ the Scourge of GoiV — subdued the 
the Scythian and German tribes, defeated the Eastern Emperor 
Theodosius II. in three bloody battles, and devastated Thrace, Mace- 
donia, and Greece; after which he invaded Gaul, where he was 
defeated by the Romans and Goths, under ^tius \y -she-us\, in the 
great battle of Chalons \sha-Idng'\ in which 162,000 of the bar- 
barians were slain (A. D. 451). The Huns then invaded Northern 
Italy, but Attila died from the effects of intemperance. The fugi- 
tives who fled in terror at Attila's name founded the city and repub- 
lic of Venice {z!en'-is\ on a number of small islands on the northern 
shores of the Adriatic sea. 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. lip 

5. Reign of Maxinms (A. D. 455). — Rome plundered by the Vandals. 

— Valentinian III. was assassinated by Max'imus, who then became 
Emperor of the West and compelled Eudox'ia, the widow of Valen- 
tinian III., to marry him (A. D. 455). In revenge, Eudoxia invited 
Gen'seric, the Vandal king of Northern Africa, to invade Italy. 
Genseric and his Vandal followers accordingly crossed the Mediter- 
ranean sea into Italy, and besieged Rome. Maximus was killed in 
a tumult which arose in the city. Rome soon fell into the hands of 
the besieging Vandals, who pillaged the city fourteen days and 
nights, after which they withdrew ; but their vessel laden with the 
plunder of Rome was wrecked on its passage to Africa (A. D. 455). 

6. The last years and end of the Westeni Roman Empire (A. D, 
455-476). — During the twenty-one years after the pillage of Rome 
by the Vandals, eight Emperors successively occupied the throne of 
the West — namely, Avi'tus (A. D. 455-457), Marjo'rian (A. D. 
457-461), Seve'rus (A. D. 461-465), Anthe'mius (A. D. 467-472), 
Olyb'rius (A. D. 472), Glyce'rius (A. D. 473-474), Ju'lius Ne'pos 
(A. D. 474-475), and Rom'ulus Augus'tulus (A. D. 475-476). 
These were enthroned and deposed at will by the military chiefs — 
Ric'imer the Goth and Ores'tes the Panno'nian — and the army, which 
was largely composed of barbarian auxiliaries. As the strength of 
the Romans diminished, the insolence of the barbarians increased; 
and finally — when the demand of the barbarians for a third part of 
the lands of Italy was rejected^Odoacer \o-do-d -ser\, chief of the 
Her'uli, a German tribe, dethroned the youthful Emperor, Romulus 
Augustulus, the little son of Orestes; and abolishing the title and 
office of Emperor of the West, assumed the title oi King of Italy 
(A. D. 476). Thus ended the Western Empire of the Romans; the 
once-proud city of Romulus was occupied by barbarian warriors, 
and a barbarian chief was seated on the throne of the Caesars. The 
Eastern, or Byzan'tine Empire — sometimes called the Greek Empire 
— continued to flourish nearly a thousand years longer. 

SECTION v.— ROMAN SOCIAL LIFE, CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 

1. Roman dwelling's. — In early times all Romans lived in humble 
dwellings; but in later times the wealthy occupied splendid man- 
sions, called villas, the floors of which were inlaid with stone or 
marble in mosaic, the walls and ceilings gilded and ornamented, the 
roofs being terraced and covered with artificial gardens, the furni- 
ture glittering with tortoise-shell and ivory. The chief apartments 
were on the ground-floor, and were entered through the atrium, or 



1 20 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 

great entrance-room, in which the nobles ranged the images of their 
ancestors, hung the family portraits, and received their clients. The 
windows were at first mere openings with shutters, but in the time 
of the Empire were closed with glass obtained at great expense from 
the East. Artificial heat was supplied by braziers. 

2. Fiirnitiire. — The walls and ceilings of Roman dwellings were 
painted in colors, or frescoed with representations of mythological 
groups, landscapes, or scenes from daily life. Roman furniture con- 
sisted of tables, chairs, dinner-couches, lamps, vases, mirrors, urns, 
incense-burners, etc. The floors were covered with many-colored 
carpets from Eastern looms. Houses were heated by means of fire- 
places or portable furnaces ; sometimes by admitting air heated by 
a furnace beneath. Beautifully-formed oil-lamps were used for 
lighting. The lamps were supported upon a beautiful candelabra. 
. 3. Eating- and di-iiiking-. — The early Romans lived mostly on bread 
and pot-herbs; but when conquests brought wealth, all ranks indulged 
in luxuries, so that in the degenerate ages of Rome eating the most 
delicious food was the great end of life to many Romans. The 
Romans had three meals — jentaculum, taken soon after rising; 
prandiiim, the middle meal; and ccena, taken about three o'clock. 
Coina, the last and principal meal, was in later times served with 
great magnificence. Various meats and vegetables were eaten. 
Pure wine, and wine mixed with honey {jmdsiim), and with water 
{calda) were drunk at feasts by the guests crowned with chaplets. 
Falernian wine was of bright amber tint. While eating, the Romans 
reclined on low couches around the table. There were no table- 
cloths. Instead of knives and forks, two spoons {cochelar and lin- 
gula) were used. On the table were oil-lamps. The dishes were 
brought and removed by slaves. 

4. Roman dress. — Roman garments were made of wool until the 
second century after Christ, when linen was introduced. The 
Roman inner-dress consisted of tunics, or short under-garments with 
sleeves. The most remarkable dress of the men was the toga, or 
loose robe, wrapped round the body so as to cover the left arm and 
leave the right nearly bare. In later times its use in the streets was 
exchanged for the pallium, or lacerna, a mantle of warm cloth. 
When a Roman was running for office he marked his toga with 
chalk, thus making it white, in Latin Candida, whence our word 
candidate. Boys wore a toga with a broad purple hem until the age 
of sixteen, when they put on the manly toga. The distinctive dress 
of the Roman women was the stola, or loose frock, fastened about 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. . 121 

the person with a double girdle. T\\t palla, or gay-colored mantle, 
was worn out of doors. The hair, encircled with a garland of roses, 
was fastened with a gold pin, while pearls and gold adorned the 
neck and arms. Romans of both sexes went with their heads un- 
covered, except when on journeys, when dark-colored hoods were 
worn. In the house solece were strapped to the bare feet, but out 
of doors the calceus, or shoe, was worn. On the ring-finger — the 
fourth of the left hand — every Roman of rank had a massive signet- 
ring. Fops loaded every finger with jewels. 

5. Baths. — Amusements. — The Romans spent much time in their 
splendid baths. The luxurious patricians of the Empire bathed seven 
or eight times a day. The chief public amusements of the Romans 
were the circus, the theatre, and the amphitheatre. At the circus 
they bet on their favorite horses and charioteers. At the theatre 
they witnessed tragedies and comedies. At the amphitheatre they 
beheld with delight the bloody combats of gladiators. The last was 
the most brutal pastime of the Romans. The gladiators were slaves, 
captives, condemned criminals, and hired ruffians. They fought in 
the arena, with each other, or with lions, tigers, leopards, and ele- 
phants. The victor, if a captive or slave, obtained his freedom. 
The vanquished were put to death, unless the spectators, by an up- 
ward movement of the thumb, signified their wish to spare the life 
of the unfortunate wretch. Games were exhibited by the Emperors 
and wealthy Romans for weeks, and thousands of wild beasts and 
gladiators would be killed, to the great delight of all classes of 
Romans, including even ladies of rank. 

6. Books and wi'iting:. — Roman books were rolls of papyrus bark, 
or parchment, written upon with a reed pen, dipped in lamp-black, 
or sepia. The back of the sheet was often stained with saffron, and its 
edges were smoothed and blackened, while the ends of the stick on 
which it was rolled were adorned with ivory or gilt wood, whence 
our word volume, a roll. Writing was done with a sharp instrument, 
or stylus, upon thin wooden tablets coated with wax. These were 
then tied up with linen thread, the knot being sealed with wax and 
stamped with a ring. 

7. Education. — The Roman mother took charge of the early edu- 
cation of her children., after which the father assumed that duty, and 
his authority over his sons lasted until his death, unless he resigned 
his authority, or the son became a flaymen of Jupiter. Elementary 
schools for boys and girls existed at Rome from an early period, but 
for centuries only reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught. 



1 2 2 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

In later ages the Greek language and literature were taught. School 
punishments were severe and flogging was frequent. 

8. Roiuau slaves. — The household work of the Romans was all 
done by slaves. In early times there were a few slaves to each house- 
hold, but in the time of the Empire there were slaves for every kind 
of work. There were born slaves and bought slaves. The common 
sort were sold like cattle in the slave-market, but the more beautiful 
and valuable were disposed of by private bargain in the taverns. 
Prices varied from ^20 to ^4,000. 

9. Roman marriag-es. — The Romans had three forms of marriages. 
The highest was called confarreatio. The bride, dressed in a white 
robe with purple fringe, and covered with a bright yellow veil, was 
escorted by torchlight to her future home. A cake (^far) was car- 
ried before her, and she carried a distaff and spindle with wool. 
When she arrived at the flower-wreathed portal she was lifted over 
the threshhold, lest she might stumble upon it, which mishap would 
be an evil omen. Her husband then brought fire and water, which 
she touched. Seated on a sheepskin, she received the keys of the 
house. The ceremony ended with a marriage supper. 

10. Funerals. — Like the Greeks, the Romans believed that the 
souls of the unburied dead wandered about without rest, not being 
admitted into Hades. The corpse was laid out and placed in the 
atrium, with the images of the ancestors of the deceased person \ and 
a cypress or pine-tree was placed before the dwelling as an emblem of 
death. Accompanied by a funeral procession, the corpse was taken 
to the Forum, where an address delivered by a relative eulogized the 
deeds of the deceased and those of his ancestry. The procession then 
moved to a place beyond the walls, where the body was buried, or, 
in later times, burned. Nine days after the funeral articles of food 
were placed beside the tomb, which was beautifully decorated 
with wreaths, and beside the niches were placed lamps and an 
inscription. 

11. Roman army. — The Roman army was divided into legions, 
( onsisting of infantry and cavalry. The legion originally consisted 
of 3,000 infantry and 300 cavalry, but afterward it contained from 
5,000 to 6,000 men. Before the time of Marius and Sulla all Roman 
citizens were subject to military duty, but from that time a soldier 
remained constantly with the army for twenty years. The legion 
then consisted of ten cohorts of 600 men each, all under pay, and 
the army was then composed of legionaries and auxiliaries sent from 
the provinces, or from the allied states. Under Augustus the legion 



THE ROMAN- EMPIRE. 



123 



consisted of 7,000 men. There were also mercenaries, as slingers 
from the Balearic Isles and bowmen from Crete. 

12. Roman warfare. — The Roman knights, or cavalry, wore a 
coat-of-mail, carried a round shield, and were armed with t\\Q pi/um, 
or spear, and a sword. The legionaries carried a shield for defense, 
and were armed with a short sword and piliim. The mercenaries 
carried bows and slings. Catapults to discharge darts, and the 
ballista to hurl stones, were used to attack walls. Walls were also 
attacked with the battering-ram, a long beam with an iron head, 
which was driven against the masonry by a body of men till a 
breach was made. _ Besieging-towers of several stories were also 
used, and on them were soldiers, who cleared the walls by means 
of their missiles, or made a direct attack by the drawbridges. The 
besiegers protected themselves while scaling or undermining walls 
by joining their shields together so as to form a tesudo (tortoise); 
while the garrison showered their arrows and javelins, and hurled 
great rocks, upon their assailants, and tried to turn aside or grapple 
the battering-ram. 

13. Eoiuan triumph. — The Roman triumph was a grand military 
pageant in honor to a victorious general. It consisted of a grand 
procession along the Via Sacra (Sacred Street) to the Capitol, where 
a bull or ox was sacrificed to Jupiter. It was an occasion of general 
rejoicing. The temples were thrown open and adorned with flowers ; 
and the people crowded the streets, or occupied balconies or tem- 
porary scaffoldings to gaze on the spectacle. The victorious com- 
mander entered the city by the gate of triumph, in a chariot drawn 
by four horses, and was met by the Senate and the magistrates. 
The procession then passed on, consisting of the civil officers ; the 
spoils of the vanquished foe; the priests with their victims for sac- 
rifice; captives of all ranks in chains; the lictors with their fasces; 
the victor with a laurel bough in his right hand and a sceptre in his 
left, and with a laurel wreath on his head ; while the army brought 
up the rear. 



PART SECOND. 

MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



CHAPTER I. 
THE DARK AGES. 



SECTION I.— THE-NEW RACES IN EUROPE. 

1. Settlements of the Northern barbarians. — At tlie commence- 
ment of Mediaeval History we find the different barbarous tribes of 
the Aryan branch of the Caucasian race located thus: i. The 
Her'uli in Italy. 2. The Ostrogoths (East Goths) east of the Adri- 
atic. 3. The Visigoths (West Goths) in Spain. 4. The Vandals 
in Africa. 5. The Franks in Gaul. 6. The Angles and Saxons in 
Britain. These all belonged to the Germanic, or Teutonic, division 
of the Aryan branch of the Caucasian race; and all had migrated 
from Germany and Scandina'via, Germany was still occupied by 
Teutonic, or Germanic, races — Saxons, Franks, and others — ances- 
tors of the modern Germans. Scandinavia was occupied by 
Goths, Sueves, Danes, and Normans — ancestors of the present 
Swedes, Danes and Norwegians. In Eastern Europe were the 
Slavo'nians — the ancestors of the modern Russians, Poles, Bohe'- 
mians, Ser'vians, Bosnians, and others — also a division of the Aryan 
branch of the Caucasian race. Hiber'nia (Ireland), Caledo'nia 
(Scotland), and Cam'bria (Wales) were inhabited by the Celts [AeUs'] 
— ancestors of the modern Irish, Highland Scotch, and Welsh — 
likewise a division of the Aryan branch of the Caucasian race. The 
Celts were also the original inhabitants of Britain (England), Gaul 
(France), and Spain; but in these three countries the C^elts had be- 
come Latinized or Romanized. In Italy, besides the old Latin, or 
Italian, races, were the new barbarian tribes from the North of 
Europe ; and in Greece were the ancient Greek or Hellenic races. 

(124) 



THE DARK A GES. 1 25 

The amalgamation of the Germanic tribes from the North with the 
old Greek and Latin races of the South produced modern society. 
The present French are the descendants of the Franks, Gauls, and 
Latins. The present English are descended from the Angles and 
Saxons, who drove the Celtic Britons from their homes. 

2. Tlie Visigoths in Spain and the Vandals in Africa. — Spain had 
been overrun and conquered by the Vandals, Sueves, and Alans, 
early in the fifth century of the Christian era; and afterwards — 
about the year 450 A. D. — by the Visigoths, who established in 
Spain a kingdom which lasted until 712 A. D. From Spain the 
Vandals had passed over into Africa, where they established a king- 
dom which lasted from 429 A. D. to 534 x\. D. 

3. Conquest of Italy by Tlieodoric the Ostrogotlu — After Odoacer, 
chief of the Heruli, had reigned over Italy twelve years (A. D. 476- 
488), Italy was invaded by Theod'oric, Kmg of the Ostrogoths, who 
defeated Odoacer in battle, took him prisoner, and caused him to 
be put to death ; and the kingdom of the Heruli in Italy was over- 
thrown. Theodoric then became King of Italy, establishing his 
capital at Ravenna, and dividing one-third of the lands of Italy 
among his followers, reducing the peasants thereon to slavery. 
Italy prospered under Theodoric and his Ostrogothic successors for 
half a century, after which Italy was annexed to the Eastern Empire. 

4. Conquest of Gaul by the Franks. — Cloris and the Merovingians. — 
About the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the 
Franks, or Freemen, a German tribe of barbarians, under the war- 
like king, Clo'vis (Ludvig, or Louis), crossed the Rhine into Gaul, 
which they conquered, putting to death Sya'grius, the last Roman 
governor of Gaul, at Soissons [_swas-sdng''\ (A. D. 486). Clovis 
defeated the Alleman'ni in the battle of Tolbiac (A. D. 496). In 
accordance with a vow which he had made before the battle, Clovis 
— whose wife was a Christian princess — embraced Christianity; and, 
with 5,000 of his subjects, was baptized in the Rhine, on Christmas 
day, A. D. 496. But the religion of Christ had little influunce on 
the savage disposition of Clovis, who caused all the chiefs or kings 
who fell into his possession to be put to death. Just before his death 
(A. D. 511) Clovis made Paris the capital of the Frank kingdom. 
Upon the death of Clovis, the Frank dominions were divided into 
three separate kingdoms — Austra'sia, Neus'tria, and Bur'gundy — 
which were afterwards united. Clovis and his weak descendants — 
called Merovin'gians, from Merove'us, their mythical ancestor — ruled 
the Frank dominions in Gaul for more than two centuries. The 



126 MEDL^VAL HISTORY. 

reigns of the Merovingians were a period of crime and bloodshed, the 
kings putting to death all their relatives to secure themselves against 
competitors ; in consequence of which the Merovingian race was 
reduced to such weakness and imbecility that the king's ministers — 
called Mayors of the Palace — usurped all the powers of royalty ; and 
finally Pepin d' Heristal \_pep' -in-der-is-tal'\ Mayor of the Palace, 
made the Mayoralty hereditary in his family. His son, Charles 
Martel, was noted for his great victory over the Saracens near Tours 
(A. D. 732). 

5. Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain. — Saxon Heptarchy. — Eng-land 
founded. — After the Romans had abandoned Britain, toward the 
middle of the fifth century A. D., the peaceful Britons, unable to 
defend themselves against the savage Picts and Scots from Caledonia 
(now Scotland), called m the aid of the warlike Angles and Saxons 
— two barbarous tribes from Northern Germany. Accordingly, a 
party of Angles and Saxons, under Hengist and Horsa, landed in 
Britain (A. D. 447), and assisted the Britons in driving back the 
Picts and Scots ; but the Angles and* Saxons then determined to 
seize the fertile island of Britain for themselves, and, being joined 
by more of their countrymen from Germany, they fell upon the de- 
fenseless Britons, and slaughtered them without mercy, or drove 
them into the mountains of Wales and Cornwall, which are still in- 
habited by their descendants. Many of the Britons crossed over 
into Western Gaul, which is still called from them — Brittany, or 
Breiagne {bre-tanc'^ After establishing themselves in Britain, the 
Anglo-Saxons founded seven small kingdoms, collectively designated 
the Saxon Heptarchy. The seven kingdoms were Can'tia, or Kent; 
Sussex, or South Saxony; Essex, or East Saxony; Wessex, or 
West Saxony; East Att^lia; Mer'cia; zx\^ NorthunHria. Under 
the auspices of Pope Gregory the Great, the Benedictine monk, 
Augustin, or Austin, converted the pagan Anglo-Saxons in Britain 
to Christianity; 10,000 of them being baptized on Christmas day, 
A. D. 597; and Augustin became Archbishop of Canterbury. In 
the year 827 A. D., Egbert, King of Wessex, united the seven king- 
doms of the Saxon Heptarchy into one great kingdom, thus becom- 
ing the first King of Angle-land, or England. 

SECTON II.— THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE. 

1. Tlie Emperor Justinian. — Aft-ica and Italy conquered by Beli- 
sarius. — In the year 527 A. D., the illustrious Justin'ian — a man of 
barbarian descent — ascended the throne of Eastern Roman, or Greek 



THE DARK AGES. 



127 



Empire — often called the Byzan'tine Empire. In 533 the Emperor 
Justinian's celebrated general, Belisa'rius, with 15,000 Byzantine 
soldiers, conquered the Vandal kingdom in Africa, and annexed it 
to the Byzantine Empire. In 535 Belisarius conquered Sicily; and 
in 536 he invaded Italy and captured Rome, where he was besieged 
for a year by the Ostrogoths under their valiant king, Vitiges. The 
Ostrogothic king was next besieged in Raven'na, which was finally 
taken, and Vitiges was carried a prisoner to Constantinople, where 
he passed the remainder of his days in affluence. 

2. War with Persia. — In 540 A. D., a war broke out between the 
Byzantine and Persian Empires, and Belisarius was summoned to the 
East to take the field against the Persians. For sixteen years (A. 
D. 540-556), Justinian waged this sanguinary war against the Persian 
king Khosrou the Great. The war ended without making any 
change in the frontiers of the two empires. 

3. Jiistiuiau and Belisarias. — Italy conquered by Narses. — Belisarius 
was finally treated with ingratitude by the Emperor Justinian, in 
whose service he had conquered two kingdoms. When Belisarius 
was recalled from Italy to operate against the Persians, the Ostro- 
goths recovered their supremacy; and Belisarius was sent to regain 
what had been lost, but he was recalled by the jealous Emperor, and 
Nar'ses was given the command of the Byzantine army in Italy. 
Narses, who also proved to be a great general, defeated the Ostro- 
goths in many encounters, and overthrew the Ostrogothic kingdom; 
and Italy was annexed to the Byzantine Empire in 554, Narses 
governing the country from Ravenna with the title of Exarch. 

4. The barbarians repulsed by BelisJirius. — Justinian's ingrratitude. 

— In his old age, Justinian agam had recourse to the services of his 
aged general, Belisarius, who drove away the barbarian Bulgarians 
and Slavonians, who had approached the gates of Constantinople. 
Justinian, jealous of the popularity of Belisarius, accused him o 
aspiring to the imperial throne, and caused his eyes to be put out 
and all his possessions to be confiscated ; and the illustrious Belisar- 
ius was thereafter often seen blind, and led by a child, begging alms 
in the street to support his living. 

5. The Pandects, Code, and Institutes of Justinian. — The greatest 
glory of Justinian's reign was his celebrated compilation of the Ro- 
man laws, known as the Pandects, Code, and Institutes of Justinian, 
which were arranged by his illustrious minister, Tribo'nian, who, at 
the head of a commission of ten eminent lawyers, had been ap- 
pointed for that purpose by the Emperor. The Pandects, Code, and 



128 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. 

Institutes of Justinian, have ever since formed the basis of civil law 
in all the countries of Europe except England. Justinian obtained 
silk-worms from China, and introduced the silk-manufacture into 
Europe. He also built the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. 
Justinian cruelly persecuted the pagans and the Arian Christians. 

6. Decline of the Greek Empire. — Justinian died in 565 A. D. ; 
after which the Eastern Empire rapidly declined, being torn with 
domestic dissensions; and emperors ascended the throne by the 
most revolting crimes. The empire was greatly exhausted by con- 
stant and sanguinary wars with the Persians; and during the reign 
of Herac'lius (A. D. 610-641), the Persian king Khosrou II. 
invaded Syria and pillaged Jerusalem, Damascus, and Antioch; but 
the Persians were finally defeated by Heraclius, and their power was 
broken. 

7. Lombard coiuiuest of Northern Italy. — In the year 568 A. D., 
the Lombards, a fierce German tribe, led by their warlike king, 
Al'boin, crossed the Alps, and settled themselves in that part of 
Northern Italy named after them — Lom'bardy. They took Pa'via 
by storm, after a siege of three years, and made it the capital of the 
Lombard kingdom, which flourished in Northern Italy for two cen- 
turies. The Lombards treated the conquered people with harsh- 
ness, and seized their possessions, but they began to till the lands 
and make some progress in civilization. 

8. Reviyal of the Greek Empii-e, and tlie strug^g-le of Iconoclasm. — 
The Emperor Leo III., the Isau'rian (A. D. 717-741) — called the 
second founder of the Eastern Empire — promoted the prosperity of 
his subjects, making Constantinople the centre of the world's com- 
merce, and attempted to put down image-worship, thus giving rise 
to a struggle between two parties — IcoiioJit' li, who favored images, 
and Icoii aclasis, who opposed them. This struggle — which shook 
the Eastern Empire for over a century — ended in the triumph of 
the image-worshipers, and finally led to the separation of the Eastern, 
or Greek, and the Western, or Latin Churches. The Macedonian 
dynasty — founded by Ba'sil I. (A. D. 867-886) — governed the 
Eastern Empire for nearly two centuries, and raised it to the highest 
military renown by successful wars with the Saracens, Russians, and 
Bulgarians. Basil II. (A. D. 976-1025) was a great warrior. Asia 
Minor was finally wrested from the Greek Empire by the Seljuk 
Turks, under the valiant leaders — Togrul and Alp-Arslan — the latter 
of whom took the Emperor Romanus Diogenes prisoner (A. D. 
1070). 



THE DARK AGES. 129 

SECTION III.— ISLAM'S RISE AND THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 

1. Mohammed and lii.s relig-ion. — The Arabs are the descendants 
of Ish'mael — "the wild man of the desert" — Abraham's son with 
Ha' gar. The ancient reUgions of Arabia were paganisms; the most 
noted of which was Sabaism, or star-worship. Early in the seventh 
century of the Christian era, a new religion began to be preached 
to the Arabs by Moham'med, or Mahom'et, who in his youth had 
made journeys as a merchant through the desert with the caravans, 
during which he became convinced of the superiority of the Chris- 
tian and Jewish religions over the Arabian idolatry. Mohammed 
exhorted his countrymen to abandon their gross idolatrous worship, 
and recognize and reverence the One True God (Al'lah), the Crea- 
tor and Ruler of the entire universe. It was believed by his fol- 
lowers that Mohammed was divinely inspired, and that the angel 
Gabriel was the medium of communication with the Prophet, to 
whom, during a period of twenty }^ears, occasional revelations are 
said to have been made. As Mohammed could neither read nor 
write, the revelations which are said to have been made to him, 
were committed to writing by amanuenses; and two years after the 
Prophet's death they were published as the holy book of the Ko'ran 
(the Reading). Mohammed's followers attribute to him many mira- 
cles, and there is also a legend that during his lifetime he made a 
nocturnal journey through the heavens, and conversed with Adam, 
Moses, and the prophets, and even with Allah himself. 

2. The Hegira. — At the age of forty, Mohammed proclaimed the 
cardinal principle of his creed: "-^ There is no god but Allah, and 
Mohammed is His Apostle. ' ' At first no one would believe Moham- 
med but his wife, Aye'sha; his father-in-law, Abube'kir; and his 
son-in-law, Ali. In a tumult at Mec'ca, in the year 622 A. D., the 
Prophet was compelled to flee from the city to Medin'a. Moham- 
med's flight from Mecca is called the Hegi'ra, and is the point from 
which the Mohammedans reckon time, as the Christians do from 
the birth of Christ. 

3. Triiunph of Islam iii Arabia. — Mohammed was enthusiastically 
received at Medina, whereupon he declared that the new religion — 
called Is' lam (Salvation) — was to be propagated by the sword. His 
followers, who daily increased in numbers, ravaged the country and 
extended the new religion by the sword ; and after many victories, 
Mohammed entered Mecca in triumph, where he was acknowledged 
temporal and spiritual ruler, and all Arabia soon adopted Islam. 
The Mohammedans, or followers of Mohammed, were called 

9 



130 MEDL^VAL HISTORY. 

Moslems, or Mtis siihnans (true believers). Mohammed — who was 
grave and dignified in his manner, and who was possessed of simplic- 
ity, benevolence, and other domestic virtues — died A. D. 632, the 
tenth year of the Hegira. 

4. Tlie Koran. — The Koran teaches the fundamental Jewish and 
Christian doctrines, along with old Arabian and Persian maxims; 
declares that there is but one God (Allah) and that Adam, Noah, 
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus were his prophets, but that Mohammed 
was greater than any of them; and requires Mohammed's followers 
to fast, to abstain from intoxicating drinks, to wash frequently, to 
pray five times a day, to give alms, to refrain from all vice, to make 
pilgrimages to Mecca, and to propagate Islam by the sword. Like 
the old Jewish system, and like other religions of the East, Moham- 
medanism sanctions polygamy. All Moslems, whatever their sins, 
are eventually to become dwellers of paradise, where they will in- 
habit marble palaces, be attired in silken robes, surrounded by the 
most delicious fruits and flowers, by hosts of servants and attendants. 
and every male dweller of paradise will have three hundred wives in 
addition to his earthly wives. The Koran declares: " The sword 
is the key of heaven and hell. A drop of blood shed in the cause 
of Allah, a night spent in arms, is of more avail than two months of 
fasting and prayer. Whoever dies in battle, his sins are forgiven." 
This promise, with the assurance that the appointed time of every 
man's death is decreed by Fate, made the Moslems boldly face 
death in battle. All who rejected the Koran — Jews, Christians, and 
others — were consigned to an eternal "hell-fire." 

5. Reigrn of Abiibokir, the fir.st Calipli (A. D. 632-634). — Inyasion 
of Syria. — Mohammed was succeeded as temporal and spiritual ruler 
by his father-in-law, Abube'kir, the first Caliph, who published the 
first edition of the Koran. The Arabians — now called Sa/acens 
(Eastern people) — began to extend their dominion and religion 
beyond Arabia; and Ka'led, "the Sword of God," invaded Syria, 
then a province of the Byzantine Empire, and took Damascus by 
storm on the very day that the Caliph Abubekir died — August 3, 
634- 

6. Reigii of Omar (A. D. 634-644). — Conquest of Syria, Persia, and 
Eg'yi)t. — Under Omar — Abubekir's successor — the Saracens effected 
the conquest of Syria (A. D. 6;^^), after taking Jerusalem and 
Antioch by siege, and defeating the Byzantine armies in several 
great battles. Saracen armies had invaded Persia, which was also 



THE DARK AGES. 



131 



conquered after several bloody battles (A. D. 641) ; and in 65 1 A. 
D., Yezdijird, the last of the Sassan'idse, was assassinated. Egypt, 
then a province of the Byzantine Empire, had been invaded by the 
Saracen forces under Am'ru, who took Memphis and Alexandria 
after vigorous sieges ; the great library in Alexandria was burned ; 
and Egypt also became a province of the Saracen Empire (A. D. 
641). The Saracens founded in Egypt a new city which they 
named Cai'ro. During Omar's reign of ten years (A. D. 634-644), 
the Saracens reduced 36,000 cities and villages, demolished 4,000 
Christian churches, and erected 1,500 Mohammedan mosques. In 
the year 644 A. D., Omar's life and eventful reign were terminated 
by the dagger of an assassin. 

7. Reig-n of Otlimaii (A. D. 644-655). — Conquest of Cyi>»*"s and 
Rhodes. — Omar was succeeded as Caliph by Othman, Mohammed's 
early secretary, who published a new edition of the Koran. During 
Othman's reign of eleven years (A. D. 644-655), the islands of 
Cyprus and Rhodes submitted to the Saracen power. Othman was 
assassinated on his throne, in the year 655 A. D., while he covered 
his heart with the Koran. 

8. Reign of Ali (A. D. 655-660). — Civil war. — Othman was suc- 
ceeded as Caliph by Ali, Mohammed's son-iii-law. During the 
reign of Ali (A. D. 655-660), the Mohammedan world became di- 
vided into two great religious parties — "Oc^t Soon ahs diX\^ the S/ie'a/is. 
A civil war now broke out among the Saracens ; and Ali was assas- 
sinated in the year 660 A. D., and the throne of the Caliphs was 
seized by the family of the Ommiyades lom-mi'-a-dees^. 

9. Reigns of the Ommiyades (A. D 660-752). — Conquests in Lidia, 
Tartary, and Africa. — The first Caliph of the dynasty of the Ommi- 
yades was Moawi'yah, who made the beautiful city of Damascus the 
capital of the Saracen Empire. Under the Ommiyades, the empire 
of the Saracens and the religion of the Koran were carried into 
Northern Hindoostan and also into a great portion of Tartary. 
The Saracens twice besieged Constantinople — once from 66S to 675, 
and again in 717 — but each time the city was saved by means of the 
newly-discovered Greek fire. The Saracens conquered all Northern 
Africa, after a stubborn resistance from the Moorish and Berber 
races, and took and destroyed Carthage, after a siege of nine years, 
A. D. 698. The Moorish tribes, resembling the roving Arabs in 
their customs and manners, soon adopted the name, language, and 
religion of their conquerors. 



132 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

10. Saracen conquest of Spain. — Saracen defeat in France. — Count 
Julian, a Visigothic noble, exasperated at the injustice of his sove- 
reign, Rod'eric, invited the Saracens into Spain. Accordingly, in 
711 A. D., a Saracen army, under Ta'rik, crossed the narrow strait 
between Spain and Africa, since called Gibraltar (meaning Ge'bel 
al Tarik, or Hill of Tarik) ; and, in 712 A. D., overthrew the tyrant 
Roderic, the Visigothic king of Spain, in the great seven days' 
battle of Xeres de la Frontera \Jia-ras' da Iahfro!i-ta'-7-a/i], Roderic 
himself being drowned in Guadalquivir \_g7aad-al-ke' -vef-] after the 
battle. Me'rida, the Spanish capital, was besieged and taken by the 
Saracens, who then established their dominion over the whole of 
Spain. The conquering Saracens then pushed their arms across the 
Pyr'enees to the very centre of France, but there the progress of 
Islam was suddenly checked by the great defeat of the Saracens by 
the Franks under Charles Martel (the Hammer) in the great seven 
days' battle of Tours [Z^'^r], Abdelrah'man, the Saracen leader, be- 
ing slain, A. D. 732. The tide of Mussulman conquest was rolled 
back, and Europe was saved to the Christian religion. 

11. Reigns of the Abbassides (A. D. 752-1258).— The CaUphate of 
Cordova.— The Saracen power had already been greatly weakened 
by domestic dissensions and civil wars; and in the year 752 A. D., 
the dynasty of the Ommiyades was overthrown, and the family of 
the Abbassides \_ab-bas'-se-decz], descendants of Ab'bas, Moham- 
med's uncle, seized the throne of the Saracen Caliphate. Abder- 
rah'man, the only one of the Ommiyades who escaped destruction, 
fled to Spain, in which country he founded the independent Caliph- 
ate of Coi-'dova, which lasted about 250 years. Under Al Mansur 
\_al-man'-soor'\, the second Caliph of the Abbasside dynasty, the 
new city of Bagdad, on the Tigris, became the capital of the Sara- 
cen Empire, and the great centre of Arabian civilization, learning, 
wealth, and refinement. 

12. Civilizatiou of the Arabs. — During the reign of Haroun' al 
Ra'schid (Aaron the Just) and* several of his successors, the Arabs, 
or Saracens, carried science and literature to the highest degree of 
perfection. Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova became famous as the 
seats of learning, while the greater part of Europe was slumbering 
in the darkness of barbarism. The Arabs taught the arts, sciences, 
literature, and poetry, wherever they established their dominion and 
religion. Architecture and music flourished in all the Arabian cities 
of Asia, Africa, and Spain. Agriculture, industry, and commerce 
were encouraijed. To the Saracens we are indebted for several 



THE DARK AGES. 



m 



sciences, such as chemistry (alchemy) and algebra, and our mode 
of notation, called the Arabic figures, as well as our system of notes 
in music. They cultivated grammar, philosophy, and medicine, 
and translated the works of Aristotle and Euclid, and a number of 
other ancient writers, both Latin and Greek. The Saracen civili- 
zation exerted a great influence upon Christian Europe throughout 
the Middle Ages. 

13. Decline and dissolution of the Saracen Empire. — The extensive 
Saracen Empire, torn by religious and political dissensions, soon 
declined in power and importance, and before the close of the ninth 
century it fell to pieces ; and numerous petty Mohammedan king- 
doms arose from the fragments of the once-vast empire of the 
Caliphs. Although the civil power of the Saracens was thus sub- 
verted, the religion of Mohammed remained in all the countries in 
which it had been established. 

14. Decline and oTerthrow of the Saracen power in Spain. — Under 
the rule of the Mohammedans, Spain enjoyed a greater degree of 
prosperity and a higher state of civilization than at any previous 
period ; but the Saracen power in Spain soon began to decline ; and 
in the year 1031 A. D., the Caliphate of Cordova was dissolved into 
a number of small states, which were gradually conquered by the 
Christians from the North of Spain. In the course of time arose 
the Christian kingdoms of Ar' agon, Castile \_kas-teer\ and Portugal, 
which waged continual wars against the Mussulman kingdom of 
Granad'a, in the South of Spain. The kingdom of Granada was 
founded in 1238 A. D., and conquered in 1492 A. D., by the united 
power of Aragon and Castile. With the conquest of Granada 
ended the Mohammedan power in Spain, after it had existed in that 
country eight centuries. 

SECTION IV.— THE WESTERN ExMPIRE RESTORED. 

1. Pepin the Little, the founder of the Carlovingian dynasty. — On 

the death of Charles Martel, his son, Pep'in the Little, became 
Mayor of the Palace, and put an end to the Merovin'gian dynasty 
by usurping .the throne of the Franks, A. D. 751. Pepin and his 
descendants are called Carlovin'gians. The Pope confirmed the 
dethronement of the Merovingian race, and Pepin in return en- 
dowed the Pope with a large portion of territory in Central Italy, 
thus laying the foundation of the Pope's temporal power. During 
Pepin's reign, the Germans were converted to Christianity by the 



134 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

zealous English missionary, Boniface, or Winfried, who was after- 
wards killed by the pagan Finlanders. 

2. Chaiicmague, or Charles the Great. — His Trars with the Saxoas. 

— Pepin the Little died in the year 768 A. D., and left the Frank 
kingdom to his two sons, Charles and Car'loman. On the death of 
Carloman, A. D. 771, Charles seized upon all the Frankish domin- 
ions, and became sole sovereign of the vast Frankish monarchy. 
Charles the Great — or Charlemagne \shar-le-mane'\ as he is called 
in French — was one of the greatest and wisest monarchs of the 
Middle Ages, as he did much for the establishment of Christianity 
and the revival of civilization in Europe. For thirty-one years, 
Charlemagne waged war against the rude and pagan Saxons in the 
North of Germany ; and the Saxons, led by their valiant chief, 
Witikind, fought bravely for their independence; but they were 
finally subdued by Charlemagne in the year 804 A. D., and were 
compelled to acknowledge the sway of the Frank monarch and to 
embrace Christianity. 

3. Conquest of the Lombard Kiiig^dom in Italy by Charlemag'ue. — 

The Lombard king, Desid'erius, having threatened to invade the 
Pope's dominions, Charlemagne led an army into the Lombard 
kingdom, in 774 A. D. ; took Pavia, the Lombard capital, after a 
vigorous siege; imprisoned Desiderius ; and assumed the title of 
King of Italy, thus putting an end to the Lombard kingdom in Italy 
after it had existed two centuries. 

4. Charlemag-ne's aid to the Christians of Spain. — Battle of Ronces- 
valles. — In the year 778 A. D., Charlemagne went to the aid of the 
Christians of Spain against the Saracens. He united the North- 
eastern portion of Spain with the Frank Empire. As he was re- 
crossing the Pyrenees into France, his rear-guard, under the com- 
mand of his nephew Roland, was attacked and cut to pieces in the 
pass of Roncesval'les, Roland himself being slain. The battle of 
Roncesvalles gave rise to many romances, and was celebrated in the 
poetry of the Middle Ages. 

5. The Marg-raviate of Brandenburg-. — Thassilo, Duke of Bararia. — 

In the year 788 A. D., soon after Charlemagne had established the 
Margraviate of Bran'denburg as a check against the destructive 
inroads of the Slavo'nians, his nephew, Thassil'o, Duke of Bava'ria, 
attempted to cast off the yoke of Frankish supremacy ; but was de- 
feated, made a prisoner, deposed, and imprisoned for the rest of his 
life. Charlemagne then annexed Bavaria to the Frank Empire, and 



THE DARK AGES. 



135 



established the Eastern Margraviate to check the incursions of the 
savage Avars. 

6. Charleiiiagrue's coronation at Rome as Emperor of the West. — 

When Charlemagne had become master of all France, Germany, and 
Italy, and a large portion of Spain, he proceeded to Rome, where, 
on Christmas day, in the year 800 A. D., as the great Frankish 
monarch was attending divine service in the church of St. Peter, 
Pope Leo III. placed the golden crown of the Roman Empire upon 
his head, and saluted hun with the title of Emperor of the Romans, 
while the people in the church shouted: "Long life to Charles 
Augustus, crowned by the hand of God, great and pacific Emperor 
of the Romans." The coronation of Charlemagne at Rome was 
regarded as a revival of the Roman Empire of the West ; and 
Charlemagne was considered a successor of the Caesars. The cap- 
ital of Charlemagne's empire was Aix-la-Chapelle \aix-la-sha-pe^\ 
There were now two great empires in Christendom — that of the 
East, with Constantinople for its capital; and that of the West, 
with Aix-la-Chapelle for its seat of government. The division 
which had for a long time existed in the Christian Church now 
ended in a complete separation ; and thus arose the Eastern, or 
Greek Catholic, and the Western, or Roman Catholic Churches. 

7. Charlema^e's domestic policy. — His deatli. — Charlemagne, who 
was extremely fond of learning, made exertions for the advancement 
of civilization among his subjects, and established order and improved 
the administration of justice throughout his vast dominions. He 
encouraged the arts, agriculture, commerce, and literature, and 
founded schools and cathedrals for the diffusion of intellectual en- 
lightenment and Christianity. His capital, Aix-la-Chapelle, was 
splendidly embellished with palaces, churches, and works of art. 
Charlemagne died in the year 814 A. D., leaving his vast empire 
to his son, Louis le Debonnaire \deb-on-yare''\ (the Good Natured). 

8. Civil wars. — Battle of Fontenaille. — Partition Treaty of Yerdun. 
— Charlemagne's successors were unable to keep together the great 
empire which he had built up. Louis le Debonnaire was dethroned 
by his sons, who then quarreled with each other; and a fierce civil 
war followed, during which a sanguinary battle of three days was 
fought at Fontenaille, in Burgundy, A. D. 841. Two years later 
(A. D. 843), the Partition Treaty of Verdun was concluded, by 
which the sons of Louis le Debonnaire divided the Frank Em- 
pire among themselves — Lothaire' taking Italy, Burgundy, and Lor- 
raine ; Louis the German obtaining Germany ; and Charles the Bald 



136 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

receiving France. At this point (A. D. 843), the history of modern 
France, Germany, and Italy, as separate nations, begins. 

9. France, Germauy, and Italy imder the Carlovingian dynasty. — 

Charlemagne's Empire was for a short time restored under Charles 
the Fat (A. D. 884-887). France remained under the weak Carlo- 
vingian dynasty until 987 A. D., when Hugh Capet, son of Count 
Hugh of Paris, usurped the French crown. Germany remained 
under the insignificant Carlovingian kings until 911 A. D., when 
that kingdom became an elective monarchy. Italy continued under 
Carlovingian rule for half a century, and in 962 was annexed to the 
Germano-Roman Empire. The Carlovingian kings of France, 
Germany, and Italy were only monarchs in name, the great dukes 
and counts virtually exercising all the powers of sovereignty, leaving 
to the sovereigns only the empty title of royalty. 

10. Ravages of the Slavonians, Avars, Normans, Hnng-arians, and 
Saracens. — After the dissolution of Charlemagne's Empire, Germany 
was ravaged on the east by the savage Slavonians and Avars, who 
occupied the vast plains of Eastern Europe, and on the north by 
the freebooting Normans from Scandinavia. Charles the Fat was 
deposed by the German princes for making a humiliating peace with 
the Normans. His valiant son and successor, Arnulf, defeated the 
Normans at Louvain, and invited the Hungarians, or Magyars 
\inod' -yars\ — a wild Tartar tribe from the Ural — to conquer the 
Avars. After subduing the Avars, the Hungarians settled in the 
valleys of the Thiess and Danube — the region since called Hungary 
— and made far more destructive incursions into Germany than 
either the Slavonians or the Avars. For over a century Germany 
and Italy were ravaged by the Hungarians, whose ferocity was only 
tamed when they embraced Christianity near the close of the tenth 
century. In the meantime, Southern Italy was severely harassed 
by Saracen pirates, who had established themselves in Sicily, which 
was for a long time defended by the armies of the Eastern and 
Western Empires. 

11. Germany made an elective empire. — Germany began its exist- 
ence as a separate monarchy with the Partition Treaty of Verdun 
(A. D. 843), and remained under the Carlovingian dynasty until 
911 A. D., when the Diet of German princes — chief of whom were 
the Dukes of Franconia, Saxony, Bavaria, Swabia, and Lorraine — 
elected Conrad I., of Franconia, King of Germany; thus making 
Germany an elective empire, which it remained until 1806. 



THE DARK AGES. 1 37 

12. The Saxon Emperors (A. D. 919-1024).— Tlie Holy Roman 
Empu'e. — After Conrad I. (911-919) came five Saxon Kings of 
Germany. Henry I., the Fowler (919-936), defeated the Hungar- 
ians at Merseberg in 933, and made the German Empire the leading 
power of Europe. His son and successor, Otho the Great (936- 
973), defeated the Hungarians at Lechfeld in 955, and annexed Italy 
to the German Empire, receiving the Lombard crown at Milan, and 
the imperial crown at Rome from the Pope, thus founding the 
'■'^ Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation'^ (A. D. 962). The 
Holy Roman Empire was at that time the leading power in Christ- 
endom. The Emperor, as King of Germany, was elected by the 
Diet of German princes, but he could only receive the imperial 
crown from the Pope. Otho the Great's son and successor, Otho 

II. (973-983), married a Greek princess and vainly endeavored to 
wrest Southern Italy from the Eastern Emperor, but was severely 
defeated at Bassantel'lo and only escaped by swimming, and finally 
died of a wound received in battle. His son and successor, Otho 

III. (983-1002), was also a great monarch, but died young. Henry 
II., the Saint, of Bavaria (1002-1024), was the last of the Saxon 
Emperors. 

13. The FraiiMsh Emperors (A. D. 1024-1125).— Henry IT. and 
Hildebrand. — Conrad II., of Franconia ( 1024-1039) — the first of a 
succession of Prankish Emperors — founded the catliedral of Spire, 
where he and succeeding Emperors were buried. His son and suc- 
cessor, Henry III. (1039-1056), raised the Empire to its height, ex- 
tending his suzerainty over Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary ; and 
deposed three rival Popes, putting a German bishop in the papal 
chair with the title of Clement II., and making the Romans swear 
that they would not elect a Pope without the imperial sanction. 
Henry III. 's son and successor, Henry IV. (1056-1106), became 
involved in a violent quarrel with Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), 
who endeavored to raise the Papacy above every other power in 
Christendom, claiming the right of the Pope, as God's vicegerent on 
earth, to crown and depose emperors and kings at pleasure. The 
Emperor Henry IV. summoned an Imperial Diet at Worms, which 
deposed Hildebrand ; and the Pope convened a Church Council at 
Rome, which dethroned and excommunicated the Emperor. At 
the Pope's command, the German clergy declared against the 
Emperor, and the Saxons rose in rebellion. Reduced to desperate 
straits, Henry IV. went to Italy in mid-winter, and was compelled 
to stand three days barefoot in the snow, without tasting a mouthful 



138 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

of food, at the castle of Canos'sa, in Naples, before the Pope would 
release him from -the excommunication and permit him to kiss the 
Pope's toe in token of submission (A. D. 1077). Henry IV. defeated 
a rival Emperor chosen in Germany; and invading Italy, deposed 
Pope Gregory VII., who was, however, restored to his power by 
Robert Guiscard \^gees' -kar\, the valiant Norman ruler of Southern 
Italy. Henry IV. 's last days were embittered by the rebellion of 
his sons, who were aided by the Pope, and one of whom took his 
father prisoner; and the Emperor died of a broken heart in humili- 
ation and poverty, and his body lie unburied for five years, until the 
Pope's excommunication sentence was removed. His ungrateful son 
and successor, Henry V. ( 1 106-1125), soon quarreled with the Pope 
about the riglit of investiture, or the riglit of temporal princes to 
appoint bishops; and, leading an army to Rome, he took the Pope 
prisoner; but after much bloodshed a compromise was effected 
between the Pope and the Emperor, each making mutual conces- 
sions. The next Emperor was Lothaire the Saxon (1125-1137). 

SECTION v.— THE NORMANS AND DANES. 

1. Norman ravages. — About the time of the dissolution of Charle- 
magne's Empire, the Normans — called also Northmen, or Norsemen 
— from the Scandinavian peninsula, began to make plundering in- 
cursions upon their southern neighbors, keeping the coasts of Ger- 
many, France, and England in constant alarm. In their light 
vessels, the Normans ravaged the coasts of the North Sea, sailed up 
the mouths of rivers, and, after securing a vast amount of booty, 
returned with it to their homes. The Norman chiefs were called 
vikings (sea-kings). The religion of the Scandinavians was a poly- 
theism, their chief gods being O' din, the supreme deity, and Thor, 
the god of war and thunder. The Scandinavians believed that by 
dying in battle they were sure to gain Valhal' la (paradise). The 
Scandinavian bards and poets — who recounted the heroic deeds of 
their ancestors in songs — were called skalds ; and the collection of 
their sacred and heroic songs was called the Edda. 

2. Normau scltleineuts. — For two centuries, the Normans, under 
the name of Danes, ravaged England. A band of Normans, under 
RoUo, settled in Northwestern France — Normandy. Ru'ric, a Nor- 
man chief, became prince of the Russians, a Slavonic peoi)le to the 
south and east of the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. Iceland was 
discovered and peopled by Norwegians, who established in that 
remote island a flourishing republic (A. D. 874). Greenland was 



THE DARK AGES. 



139 



discovered and peopled from Iceland. The Normans are said to 
have visited the North American continent. 

3. Settlemeut of the Normans in Fi'ance. — After the Partition Treaty 
of Verdun, France, under the weak Carlovingian kings, suffered 
dreadfully from the ravages of the Normans. During the reign of 
Charles the Simple, who was entirely under the control of Count 
Hugh of Paris, the Normans, under a chief named RoUo, or 
Robert, three times ascended the Seine and besieged Paris. Finally 
Charles the Simple allowed RoUo his daughter in marriage, and 
Rollo and his Norman followers to settle in Northwestern France — 
named from them Normandy — on condition of renouncing their 
barbarous habits and accepting Christianity (A. D. 911). The 
Normans in France adopted the French language and customs, and 
rapidly advanced in civilization. 

4. Eng-laud ravaged by the Danes. — King- xilfred the Great of Eng'- 
land. — Under Egbert (A. D. 827-S36) and his successors — the 
Anglo-Saxon Kings of England — that country was frightfully rav- 
aged for two centuries by the Danes (as the Normans are called in 
English history). During the reign of Alfred the Great (A. D. 
871-901) — the most illustrious of all the Anglo-Saxon Kings of 
England — the Danes obtained almost entire possession of the king- 
dom. Alfred the Great became a fugitive among his Anglo-Saxon 
subjects, but he finally defeated the Danes and recovered his king- 
dom, allowing the Danes to remain in England on condition of 
accepting Christianity. King Alfred the Great was the greatest, 
wisest, most virtuous, and most learned monarch of his age ; and 
was at that time the most learned man in his kingdom. He 
encouraged the arts, science, and literature ; and laid the foundation 
of those institutions which have placed England at the head of 
European civilization, enlightenment, progress and liberty. He 
reformed many abuses, founded the university of Oxford, improved 
London, reformed the Saxon division of the kingdom into counties, 
or shires, instituted trial by jury, and laid the foundations'' of the 
English navy. 

5. The Danish Conquest of Engrland. — Reign of Canute the Cireat. — 

Under the successors of Alfred the Great, England was again rav- 
aged by the Danes. In the year 1002 A. D., King Ethelred II. 
caused all the Danes in England to be massacred. Thereupon 
Sweyn, King of Denmark, invaded England ; and his son and suc- 
cessor, Canute the Great, conquered England in 1016, and became 



I40 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

the first Danish King of England (A. D. loi 6-1035). At first 
Canute the Great treated his Anglo-Saxon subjects with great sever- 
ity ; but after he had embraced Christianity, he governed with 
mildness and wisdom. Canute the Great was one of the most pow- 
erful monarchs of his time, and reigned over four kingdoms — Eng- 
land, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. 

6. Battle of Hastings and tlie Norman Couqnest of England. — After 
the short reigns of Canute's sons — Harold Harefoot (A. D. 1035- 
1039) and Hardicanute (A. D. 1039-1041) — the Saxon dynasty was 
restored to the throne of England in tlie person of Edward the 
Confessor, upon whose death, in 1066, the crown of England was 
usurped by his wife's brother, Harold. Harold's brother, Tostig, 
who claimed the English crown, and his ally, Harald Hardrada, 
King of Norway, were defeated and killed in battle with Harold at 
Stamford Bridge, on the river Tyne, in the North of England (Sep- 
tember 25, 1066). But Duke William of Normandy — to whom 
Edward the Confessor had bequeathed his kingdom, and whose 
pretensions were sanctioned by the Pope — landed on the southern 
coast of England, at the head of 60,000 men. In the great battle 
of Hastings, or Senlac (October 14, 1066), Harold was killed, and 
the Duke of Normandy gained a victory which changed the whole 
fate of England. He was thereafter called Willi am the Conqueror, 
and his subjugation of England is styled T]ie Norman Conquest 

7, Norman Conquest of Soiitliorn Italy. — About the year 1016 a few 
hundred adventurers from Normandy landed in Southern Italy, and 
were subsequently joined by more of their countrymen, until 1060, 
when the renowned Norman Duke, Robert Guiscard [gees' -kar"], 
conquered Southern Italy from the Greeks and Saracens, and was 
acknowledged by the Pope as Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and of 
such other provinces as he might rescue from the Greeks and Sara- 
cens. The Norman dynasty founded by Robert Guiscard ruled 
Southern Italy for several centuries. 

CHAPTER II. 
MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. 

SFXTION I.— THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
1. Origrin of the Feudal System. — Division of lands among- the bar- 
barians. — We will now proceed to give an account of the Feudal 
System, or form of government which prevailed throughout Europe 



MEDIMVAL EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION: 



141 



during the Middle Ages. The barbarians who overthrew the West- 
ern Roman Empire divided the conquered lands among themselves*. 
The chief of each of these tribes of barbarians was called a king. 
Under him were other chiefs or leaders called barons. Under each 
of these barons were still other chiefs, and under each of these last 
was a large body of people. The military organization was kept up 
in the conquered countries. The barbarian conquerors devoted 
themselves entirely to war, leaving the tilling of the soil to the con- 
quered inhabitants, who became slaves or se7'fs. The serfs were 
bought and sold with the lands on which they lived. 

2. Castles of the kings and barons. — Allotment of the lands.— Feuds 
or fiefs. — The kings and barons owned large stone castles, to which 
they retired when attacked by an enemy. All the personal property 
of the conquered people was divided by lot among the conquerors; 
but the lands were regarded as the property of the king, not to 
retain, however, but to grant to his followers. The king kept a 
portion of the lands for his own use. These were called crown- 
lands; and the king's power depended upon the extent of his private 
estates. The remainder of the lands was bestowed on his subordi- 
nate chiefs, the barons, to be held by them for life. At the death 
of a chief or baron, his portion of land, called a. feud, ox Jief, was 
again taken by the king, who then bestowed it on some other baron. 
From the ienwfcitd, the word /euda/ i?, derived; and by the Feudal 
System is meant the system based on the feuds or fiefs. 

3. Yassals and lord-paran»ount. — Conditions of the allotment. — Sub- 
flefs. — Those to whom the king granted fiefs were called vassals of 
the croivn, or liegemen. The giver of the lands was called a liege- 
lord, or lord-paramount. The king bestowed the lands on his 
vassals on condition that they should join him with a certain num- 
ber of soldiers whenever he should call them to arms. To do this 
they bound themselves by a solemn oath, which was called swearing 
fealty. The king, who was lord-paramount or liege-lord, in return, 
swore to protect his vassal, and not to continue in arms more than 
forty days at a time, nor to war against the Church. On the same 
condition, t,he vassals of the crown distributed their lands among 
their followers or vassals. Thus each vassal bestowed fiefs and sub- 
fiefs on his vassals, each of whom did homage for his lands to his 
liege-lord. So there were many grades of fiefs and sub-fiefs. 

4. Fiefs and titles become hereditary. — These fiefs, which were at 
first granted only for life, at length became hereditary in the 



1^2 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

families of the great vassals of the crown, each of whose estates at 
his death passed into the possession of his eldest son. In the same 
manner, great offices and their titles, such as duke, marquis, count, 
or baron, finally became hereditary also. Out of this state of things 
originated the exclusive privileges yet enjoyed by the nobility of 
Europe. 

SECTION II.— CHIVALRY. 

1. Orig-in of Cliivaliw. — Deyotion to the cause of the weak and op- 
pressed. — The great oppressions and abuses to which the Feudal 
System gave rise, led to the establishment of a remarkable institu- 
tion throughout Europe about the beginning of the eleventh century. 
This peculiar institution, called Chivalry, originated in the piety of 
some nobles who wished to give to the profession of arms a religious 
tendency. These nobles devoted their swords to God, and bound 
themselves by a solemn oath to use them only in the cause of the 
weak and the oppressed. Those who took upon themselves these 
vows were called knights. Very soon every noble aspired to the 
honor of being a knight; and the result was that much attention was 
given to the education of the young, for more than physical power 
was needed before any one could be admitted to the honors of 
knighthood. 

2. Virtues requisite for knighthood. — Education of a knight. — The 
aspirant to knighthood was required to be brave, courteous, gener- 
ous, truthful, obedient, and respectful to his superiors in age or rank, 
and also to the ladies. The result of the development of these vir- 
tuous and noble qualities was that the candidate for knighthood 
became kind and affable to all who were below him in rank or for- 
tune. The young noble who aspired to knighthood was placed at 
a very early age under the care of some noble distinguished for his 
chivalrous qualities, who, in his castle, instructed the young aspirant 
to knighthood in all the duties of Chivalry. 

3. Ceremonies of admission to kniglithood. — Tlie ceremonies of ad- 
mission to the order of knighthood were somewhat singular. The 
candidate was first placed in a bath, to denote that in presenting 
himself for knighthood, he must present himself washed from his 
sins. When he left the bath he was clothed ; first, in a white tunic, 
to signify the purity of the life he was vowing to lead ; then, in a 
crimson vest, to denote that he was called upon to shed blood ; and 
lastly, in a complete suit of black armor, which was an emblem of 
death, for which he must always be prepared. He took an oath to 



MEDIM VAL EUR OPE AN CIVILIZA TION. 1 43 

speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to 
practice courtesy, to defend the Christian reHgion, to despise the 
allurements of ease, and to vindicate the honor of his name. 

4. Dress ami arms of a knight. — The knight was dressed in a suit 
of armor which protected his whole person. This armor was some- 
times made of mail, that is, links of iron forming a kind of net-work 
dress, which a sword or a lance could not easily penetrate. Often 
this armor consisted of plates of iron, which protected the whole 
body of the knight. The aggressive weapons of a knight were a 
lance twelve or fifteen feet in length, a large sword, a dagger, and 
sometimes a battle-axe, or a steel club called a mace-at-arms. The 
knight's war horse, like himself, was protected by a covering of 
mail or iron plate. 

5. Knigrhts-Errant. — Toiiniaments. — Those knights who travelled 
about from place to place, independent of each other, were called 
knights-errmit. Sometimes a great entertainment, called a tourna- 
ment, was given by some king or rich prince, at which a mock com- 
bat was held for the knights to display their skill in the use of arms. 
A vast number of ladies and gentlemen assembled to witness these 
friendly trials of skill. At the conclusion of the exercises, the 
judges, who were usually old knights, declared the victors; and the 
prizes were presented to the successful knights by the noblest or 
most beautiful lady present. 

6. Good eifccts of Chivalry on European civilization. — The good 
effects of the institution of Chivalry were many. While it protected 
the defenseless and the down-trodden in that warlike and barbarous 
period, the Middle Ages, it contributed much to the final overthrow 
of feudalism and the revival of European civilization, which had 
disappeared with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Com- 
mence increased, talent and invention received encouragement, the 
arts and the sciences began to flourish, and many new towns were 
built and peopled. 

SECTION III.— THE PAPACY AND HIERARCHY. 
1. The papal power. — Hildebrand. — The Pope, or Head of the 
Church, assumed command or authority over all the princes and 
kingdoms of Christendom. He regarded the empire of Germany 
and all other Christian kingdoms as papal fiefs. From the eleventh 
to the sixteenth century the papal power was at its height. During 
that period the power of the Pope was so great that the most power- 
ful monarch of Europe could be subjected to the greatest humilia- 



144 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

tion by His Holiness. The most powerful, the most illustrious, and 
the ablest of the Popes, and the one who raised the papacy above 
every other power in Christendom, was Greg'ory VII. (Hil'debrand), 
who compelled Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, to come to Italy 
and stand three days and three nights barefoot in the snow without 
tasting a mouthful of food. 

2. Interdict and oxcomnuniication. — The two punishments by the 
influence of which the Pope endeavored to maintain his authority 
were the interdict and tlie cxctviiDiiiuication. Tlie papal punishment 
by the interdict was forbidding or interdicting divine service to be 
publicly performed. When a nation was under an interdict, the 
churches were all closed, the bells were not rung, the dead were 
thrown into ditches and holes without any funeral ceremonies, 
diversions of all sorts were forbidden, and everything presented an 
appearance of gloom and mourning. An interdict was levelled at a 
village, a city, a state, or a nation ; but an excommunication was 
directed against individuals. A person excommunicated by the 
PojDe was regarded as unholy and polluted ; and every person was 
forbidden to come near him or render him any friendly assistance. 
If the sentence of excommunication could be enforced, as \\\ most 
cases it could, the proudest and most powerful monarch could be- 
come, by a single decree of the Holy See, a miserable outcast. 

3. Tlie power and influeuce of tlie clergy. — The power and influence 
of the clergy during the Middle Ages was almost as great and im- 
portant as was that of the nobles and the princes. Besides their ec- 
clesiastical dignities, the superior clergy often held the most import- 
ant offices of state ; and by degrees great numbers of the archbishops, 
bishops, and abbots acquired extensive possessions, so that they 
finally became as powerful and influential as most of the princes. 
The magnificent cathedrals and abbeys, adorned with all the pro- 
ductions of art, fully attested the greatness of the ecclesiastical resi- 
dences. 

SECTION IV.— MONACHISM. 

1. Origin of Monacliism or Monasticisni. — Life of solitnde and relig- 
ions devotion. — Monaciiism, or jSIonasticism, had its birth-place in 
the East, where a life of solitude and devotion to the contemplation 
of divine subjects was by degrees adopted by so many that about the 
close of the third century of the Christian era the Egyptian Anto'- 
nius, who had divested himself of all his vast possessions and selected 
the desert for his residence, collected the hitherto scattered monks. 



MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN CIZILIZATION. 145 

or monachi, as they were called, into enclosed places styled monas- 
teries, abbeys, cloisters, or convents. In these monasteries the 
monks liv«d together in fellowship; and Pacho'mius, the disciple of 
Antonius, gave the fraternity a rule. 

2. Tlie Benedictine monks. — The Ang"ustinians and otlier monastic 
orders. — Monasticism soon extended into Western Europe. In the 
sixth century, Ben'edict of Nur'sia established a monastery on Mount 
Casin'o, in Southern Italy, and thus became the founder of the 
famous order of Benedictine monks, which rapidly spread into all 
European countries and built many cloisters. Numerous orders of 
monks arose in the course of time, among which were the Aitgustin'- 
iajts, so called from the famous St. Au'gustine. Other noted mo- 
nastic orders were the Cister' cians, the Premon'strattts, and the 
Carthu'sians. 

3. The Franciscan and Dominican monks. — Two celebrated monkish 
orders arose in the thirteenth century — the Francis' cans and the 
Domin'icans. The order of Franciscans was founded by the pious 
Francis of Assisi, a wealthy merchant's son, who, in 1226, re- 
nounced all his possessions, clothed himself in rags, and went from 
place to place, begging and preaching the gospel. His wonderful 
zeal for the salvation of souls made for him many disciples, who, 
following his example, renounced their worldly possessions, fasted, 
prayed, and supported themselves by alms and donations. The 
order of Franciscans became wide-spread throughout Europe. 
About the same time arose the order of Dominicans, founded by the 
learned Spaniard, Domin'icus. The chief aim of the Dominican 
monks was the extinction of all heretical doctrines and the preserva- 
tions of the predominant faith in its original purity. The Domini- 
cans took a vow of absolute poverty, and sought to gain heaven by 
austerity of manner and by a strict religious devotion. The court 
of the Inquisition, with all its horrible examinations, dungeons, and. 
tortures, was assigned to the Dominicans for the extermination of 
heretics, as all who differed with the established Church were called. 
The Franciscan monks, who mingled with the people, were chiefly 
engaged in the salvation of souls; while the Dominicans, who gave 
their attention to the sciences, filled, by degrees, the chairs of the 
universities. 

4. Monastic tows. — Nims and nunneries. — Relations of Monachism to 
the Papacy. — All monks were obliged to take the three vows of celi- 
bacy, personal poverty, and obedience. Females who took upon 
themselves the obligations of Monachism were called nuns, and their 

10 



146 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

cloisters or convents were styled nunneries. The monastic orders were 
the strongest support of the power of the Pope, who endowed them 
with privileges and removed them from the authority of the bishops. 
5. Beneficial influence of Monacliism on ciyilization and the manners 
of the ag'e. — Monachism proved a blessing to humanity during the 
dark and barbarous period of the Middle Ages. It preserved the 
remains of ancient civilization, afforded an asylum or place of refuge 
for the down-trodden and the oppressed, and diffused morality and 
intellectual enlightenment and softened the rude manners of those 
benighted times by the preaching of the gospel and by the establish- 
ment of schools for education. 

SECTION v.— MEDI/EVAL LEARNING AND LITERATURE. 

1. MediaBval European civilization. — During the whole mediaeval 
period of a thousand years — known also as the Middle Ages — Europe, 
under feudalism, was slumbering in the darkness of barbarism, 
ignorance, and superstition. All the learning was in the possession 
of the clergy, and most of them were only able to read their prayer- 
books and write their names. During the Dark Ages, kings and 
nobles were unable to write their own names. 

2. Great names of the Dark A^es. — The first half of the mediaeval 
period is known as the Dark Ages. The Saracens or Arabians were 
then leaders in learning and the arts. The great names among the 
Arabians of this period were Achmet, the astronomer; Geber, the 
chemist; and Avicen'na (980-1037), the eminent physician and 
philosopher. Fir'dusi, a renowned Persian poet, flourished early 
in the eleventh century. Two illustrious names appear among the 
Anglo-Saxons of Britain in the eighth century — " the Venerable" 
Bede (672-735), the church historian, and Al'cuin (725-804), a 
famous scholar, the tutor of Charlemagne. 

3. Mediaeval European universities. — The great seats of learning in 
Europe during the Middle Ages, were the famous universities of 
Oxford, in England ; Paris, in France ; Bologna \_bo-lo'-na], in 
Italy ; and the Moorish university of Cordova in Spain. Th^e 
were attended by thousands of students from different parts of 
Europe. The students and professors mostly begged their way, as 
poverty was considered no disgrace when it was endured for the 
sake of learning. Latin was the universal language of the learned, 

. all over Christian Europe. Other famous schools arose at Cam- 
bridge, in England ; Prague, in Bohemia ; Toulouse and Montpelier, 
in the South of France ; Padua, in Italy ; and Salamanca, in Spain. 



MEDIMVAL EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. 



147 



4. Reyiyal of pliilospliy. — Schoolmen and Mystics. — The great 
French philosopher, Abelard (1079-1142) — who flourished in the 
first part of the twelfth century — is regarded as the founder of the 
Scholastic philosphy. The Schoolmen were those philosophical 
writers who devoted themselves to subtle points of theology and 
metaphysics. The most eminent of the Schoolmen were the Italian 
Dominican monk, Thomas Aqui'nas (i 224-1 274), "the Angelic 
Doctor," and the Scottish Franciscan monk. Duns Sco'tus (1265- 
1308), "the Subtle Doctor" — both of whom flourished in the 
thirteenth century, and who were the founders respectively of the 
Thomists and the Scotists. Other famous schoolmen were Anselm 
(1033- 1 108), Archbishop of Canterbury, and Peter Lombard 
(1100-1160), an Italian monk. The English monk, Roger Bacon 
(1214-1294), "the Admirable Doctor," and the Italian monk, 
Albertus Magnus (i 193-1280) — both of whom flourished in the 
thirteenth century — were Schoolmen celebrated for their investiga- 
tions in physical science, and both were punished as magicians. 
The Mystics sought to build up a religion of feeling, of poetry, and 
of imagination, in opposition to the system of the Schoolmen, who 
sought to blend science with revelation. The most renowned of the 
Mystics was Thomas a Kempis (1381-1471), who was born in Ger- 
many, but flourished in France during the fifteenth century — the 
closing period of the Middle Ages — and whose great work, Imi- 
tatione Christi (Imitation of Christ), has been translated into all 
languages. 

5. Rise of modem Eiu'opean lan^ages. — The Northern and Eastern 
nations of Europe kept their own languages. The mingling of the 
Northern barbarian conquerors with the Celtic and Latin races of 
Southern and Western Europe gave rise to the modern French, 
Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. The blending of Norman-French 
with the Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, gave us the modern English. 

6. Mediaeyal Italian literature. — Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. — 

In Italian literature we find three illustrious names, all of whom 
flourished at Florence — "the Athens of the Middle Ages" — in the 
fourteenth century. The first and greatest of these was the renowned 
dramatic poet, Dante \dai^-td\ (i 265-1321), who, in his Divine 
Comedy, describes his visions of Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. The 
next was Petrarch \j>^-trark'\ (1304-1374), also a great dramatic 
poet, famous for his Odes to Laura. The third was Petrarch's co- 
temporary, Boccaccio \bok-at'-cho'\ (1313-1375), the great novelist, 
who, by his novels and tales, became the creator of Italian prose, 



148 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

his great work being Decameron. Petrarch and Boccaccio were 
mainly instrumental in restoring ancient civilization and literature. 

7. Eiigiish literature of the time of Edward III. — ManderiEe, Chau- 
cer, Gower, Laug-land, and Wyelilfe. — English literature arose in the 
time of King Edward III. , in the fourteenth century. The Travels of 
Sir John Mandeville (1300-13 7 2) were the earliest English prose. 
Geoffrey Chaucer (132S-1400) — " the Father of English poetry" 
— wrote Canterbury Tales. John Gower (1320-1402) — called 
"Moral Gower" — was another great English poet; as was also 
William Langland (i 332-1 400), the author of Piers Ploivman. 
John Wycliffe (1324-1384) — the great Oxford professor, divine, 
and reformer — made the first English translation of the Bible. 

8. Fi'euch iiiediaeval Idstoriaus. — Minnesing'ers, Meistersing-ers, and 
Troubadoiu's. — Epic poems. — Two great French historians flourished 
during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries — Frois'sart (1337- 
1410) and Comines \_ko-nieen'~\ (1445-1509). Lyric poetry was 
cultivated by the Alinnesingers and Aleistersingers in Germany, and 
by the Troubadours in the South of France. The great German 
epic poem of the Nibelungen Lied ; the Spanish poem of the Cid, 
who fell in the war against the Moors in 1099 ; and the British poem 
of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, were the most 
famous productions of mediaeval heroic poetry. The mediaeval 
architecture displayed itself mostly in magnificent cathedrals in the 
Gothic style. 

SECTION VI.— EUROPEAN TOWNS, COMMERCE AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
1. Increase of European wealth and power.— Growth of towns. — 

Toward the close of the eleventh century all the European nations 
gradually grew more wealthy and powerful. The towns emerged 
into importance. Cities are always the centres of civilization. As 
civilization advanced new towns arose, especially in Germany and 
Italy, and the old towns recovered their ancient greatness. The 
real importance of the German towns began with the Hanseafic 
League, which was of the greatest importance to commerce and 
freedom. The Hanseatic League, comprising seventy cities and 
towns, maintained powerful fleets and defended commerce in the 
Northern seas against piracy. In Italy the Lombard cities arose to 
greatness, and finally threw off the nominal yoke of the German 
Emperor. The great Italian republics of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and 
Florence, engrossed the commerce of the Mediterranean and the 
East. 



MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. 



[49 



2. Flemish woolen manufacture. — Eng'llsh commerce. — The growth 
of towns gave rise to various industries, and trade and commerce 
began to flourish. The woolen manufacture of Flanders was among 
the earliest industries. This had become important in the twelfth 
century, and "Flemish stuffs" were sold in distant lands. Ghent 
and Bruges were the chief seats of this industry. The weavers of 
these cities were noted for their democratic spirit. In England, for 
two centuries after the Norman Conquest, the export of wool, the 
great staple of that country, was the only commerce. But in the 
fourteenth century, King Edward III., the father of English com- 
merce, brought Flemish artisans to England, and thus introduced 
the finer manufacture of woolen cloths. From that period England 
increased in wealth, and a merchant's occupation became honorable. 

3. Italian commerce. — Silk manufacture. — The commerce of the 
South of Europe was conducted by the republics of Venice, Genoa, 
and Pisa. The Crusades increased the wealth and extended the 
commerce of these Italian city-republics. The towns of Marseilles 
\jnar-sails'\ Nismes \jieem\ and Montpelier, in Southern France, 
and Barcelona, in Spain, had a flourishing commerce. The intro- 
duction of the silk-manufacture at Palermo, in Sicily, in 11 48, was 
the beginning of manufacturing mdustry in Italy. Silk soon be- 
came a staple manufacture of the towns of Lombardy and Tuscany, 
and their laws enforced the cultivation of mulberries. The silk- 
manufacture soon spread into Southern Europe and into Catalonia, 
in Spain. 

4. The Jews and moneyed in.stitutions. — The growth of commerce, 
in the course of time, led to the establishment of moneyed institu- 
tions. Most nations in the Middle Ages treated the lending of 
money for profit as a crime. This trade was at first entirely con- 
ducted by the Jews, who were long subjected to cruel persecution, 
being maltreated and swindled to a shameful extent. In the thir- 
teenth century the merchants of Lombardy and Southern France 
took up the trade in money by beginning the business of remitting 
money on bills of exchange and of making profits on loans. The 
" Lombard usurers," in spite of much prejudice, established them- 
selves in all the leading commercial centres of Europe. As the 
practical utility of this business was soon recognized, this ancient 
prejudice gradually died away. The earliest bank of deposit is said 
to have been that of Barcelona, in Spain, founded in 1401. The 
bank of Genoa was established in 1407, and soon became a great 
power. 



ISO 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



5. Social condition of the people. — The growing wealth of Europe 
led to the diffusion of comforts and luxuries among the people. 
Dwelling-houses were improved. Chimneys and window-glasses 
first came into use in the fourteenth century. Fantastic fashions 
prevailed. Long-toed shoes came into general use. The toes of 
these were so long that they had to be fastened to the knees with 
gold chains. Ignorance and superstition was the rule. Books were 
it'H and highly-priced. Implicit faith was placed in stories of giants 
and magicians, dragons and enchanted palaces. In the short inter- 
vals of peace in the Middle Ages, hunting and hawking were favor- 
ite amusements. Even the clergy were very fond of field-sports. 



CHAPTER III. 
THE CRUSADES. 

SECTION I.— ORIGIN OF THE CRUSADES. 

1. Clu'istian pilgrimages to Jerusalem. — Outrages upon the pilgrims. 

— From the time of the triumph of Christianity over the paganism 
of the Roman world in the fourth century, it had been a custom 
among the people of Christian Europe to make pilgrimages to Jeru- 
salem for the purpose of expiating a sinful life, praying at the Holy 
Sepulchre, and exhibiting gratitude for heavenly mercies. As long 
as Syria and Palestine formed a part of the Byzantine, Greek, or 
Eastern Roman Empire, access to the Holy City was secured to 
these pilgrims. While the Holy Land remained under the enlightened 
dominion of the Saracens, or Arabians, the Christian pilgrim was also 
unmolested in his journey to and from the Holy Sepulchre. But 
when the Seljuk Turks — a race of fierce barbarians from the plains 
of Tartary, who had established a powerful and extensive empire in 
Central and Western Asia — took Jerusalem in 1076, and obtained 
full possession of the Holy Land in 1094, the native Christians and 
the pilgrims from Europe were ill-treated, and many of them became 
martyrs to their religion. Those who returned to Europe from their 
pilgrimages gave a melancholy account of the cruelties and oppres- 
sions suffered by the Christians in Palestine at the hands of the 
Moslem Turks, and thus excited the greatest indignation in Christian 
Europe. 

2. Preaching of Peter the Hermit. — Entliusiasm of the people o( 
Europe. — Among others who had been a witness of the cruelties and 
oppressions suffered by the Christians in Palestine was the zealous 



THE CRUSADES. 151 

and fanatical monk, "Peter the Hermit," of Amiens, in the French 
province of Pic'ardy. On his return to Europe from a pilgrimage to 
the Holy Land, Peter the Hermit resolved to arouse the Christian 
nations of Europe to a gigantic effort to wrest the Holy Land from 
the hands of the Moslems. Peter went from town to town and from 
castle to castle, preaching of the duty of Christian Europe to expel 
the barbarian Turks from the Holy City. Wherever he went, 
numerous crowds assembled to hear him; and very soon all France 
and Italy were aroused to the wildest enthusiasm for an expedition 
against the Moslem desecrators of the shrine of the Saviour. 

3. Pope Urban n. and the Council of Clermont. — Pope Urban H. , 
who zealously abetted the design for an expedition for the redemp- 
tion of the Holy Land, assembled a Council of the Church at Cler- 
mont, in Southern France. This Council was attended by numer- 
ous bishops and an immense concourse of people. When the Pope, 
addressing the clergy and the multitude, said, "It is the duty of 
every one to deny himself and take up the cross that he may win 
Christ," there arose a simultaneous shout, "It is the will of God !" 
and great numbers demanded to be enlisted in the sacred army. 
As the symbol of enlistment in the cause of God was a red cross to 
be worn on the right shoulder, the expedition was called a Crusade, 
and those who engaged in it were called Crusaders. All who en- 
gaged in the enterprise received from the Church the promise of a 
remission of sins and an eternal heavenly reward after death. 

SECTION II.— FIRST CRUSADE (A. D. 1096-1099.) 

1. The fli'st band of Crusaders, under Peter the Hermit and Walter 
the Peimiless. — The enthusiasm for the Crusade was so great through- 
out Christian Europe that many became impatient at what they 
considered the slowness of the preparations of princes ; and accord- 
ingly, in 1096, numerous bands, consisting of thousands of the low- 
est classes of society, set out for the Holy Land without order or 
discipline. They were led by Peter the Hermit and a French knight 
called "Walter the Penniless." They proceeded through Germany 
and Hungary towards Constantinople, but very few of them ever 
reached Asia. Having attempted to obtain the necessaries of life 
by forcible means in the countries through which they passed, and 
having carried robbery and desolation through Bulgaria, and stormed 
Belgrade, the inhabitants of those countries rose against them and 
destroyed nearly the entire band of Crusaders ; and Peter the Her- 
mit and Walter the Penniless had very few followers when they 



1^2 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

reached Constantinople, where they waited to join the great army 
of the First Crusade under Godfrey of Bouillon \_bool-ydng'\ 

2. Fate of other disorderly bauds. — Other disorderly and undiscip- 
lined bands, which violently persecuted and even murdered Jews 
and others who rejected Christ, followed those of Peter the Hermit 
and Walter the. Penniless; but they were totally destroyed before 
they reached Constantinople by the people whom they had robbed 
and plundered. 

3. Tiie great army imder Godft-ey of Bouillou. — The other cliief 
leaders. — Nearly 300,000 of the Crusaders had already perished 
when the valiant Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, led a pow- 
erful and disciplined army toward the Holy Land. The principal 
leaders of the Crusaders next to Godfrey of Bouillon were Count 
Hugh of Vermandois, brother of King Philip L of France ; Duke 
Robert of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror of England ; 
Count Stephen of Blois, father of King Stephen of England; the 
chivalrous Count Raymond of Toulouse; Earl Robert of Flanders; 
and Bo'hemond, brother of Robert Guiscard, the Norman prince of 
Southern Italy. This great army of Crusaders set off for Palestine 
in six divisions, which took different routes to Constantinople, 
where all were united before passing over into Asia. When the 
Crusaders arrived in Asia their army consisted of 400,000 men, of 
whom 100,000 were cavalry. 

4. Siege and capture of Autioch by the Crusaders. — ^Theii* cruelties. 

— The Crusaders captured Ni'ce, in Asia Minor, in 1097, after a siege 
of two months., and defeated the Turks in the battle of Dorylse'um. 
Proceeding in their victorious career, the Christians next laid siege 
to An'tioch. That city was finally taken by the strategy of Prince 
Bohemond and the treachery of one of the Turks, who left a gate 
open to the besieging Crusaders. The greatest cruelties were per- 
petrated upon the unfortunate inhabitants of Antioch by the victo- 
rious Christians after the capture of the city. 

5. Great Christian victory at Antioch. — A few days after the Cru- 
saders had taken Antioch, an army, of 300,000 Turks and Persians 
appeared before that city. The finding of a "holy lance'' in the 
Church of St. Peter raised the courage of the Christians, who sallied 
out of the city, and after a desperate battle, totally defeated the 
Moslems and forced them to a precipitate flight. 

6. Siege and capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders. — Massacre of Mo- 
hammedans. — Onward the Crusaders proceeded. When they came 
in sight of Jerusalem they shouted and wept for joy, and fell down on 



THE CRUSADES. 



153 



their knees and offered thanks to God ; but their joy was succeeded 
by rage at beholding the Holy City in the possession of the Moham- 
medans. The Crusaders therefore laid siege to the city, which they 
finally took by storm, in July, 1099, after a siege of nearly six 
months. The streets of the captured city were soon filled with the 
bodies of 70,000 slaughtered Mohammedans. The conquering 
Christians believed that they were doing God good service by 
slaughtering all who rejected the Saviour; and both Jews and 
Mohammedans were massacred. After this most shocking atrocity, 
the Crusaders proceeded with hymns of praise to the Hill of Calvary, 
and kissed the stone which had covered the body of the Saviour; 
and then offered thanks to the God of Peace for the signal success 
of their undertaking. 

7. Foimding' of tlie Clu-istian Kingdom of Jerusalem. — After the 
capture of the Holy City, the Crusaders established the Christian 
Kingdom of Jerusalem, which lasted nearly a century. Theii 
gallant leader, Godfrey of Bouillon, was made ruler of the new 
state. He was too pious to assume the title of King ; but called 
himself '■'^ Defender of tlie Holy Sepulchre,'''' and wore a crown of 
thorns instead of one of gold. Godfrey gained a great victory over 
the Sultan of Egypt, at As'calon, in August, 1099. He died in the 
following year (A. D. iioo), and was succeeded at the head of the 
new state by his heroic brother Baldwin. 

8. Founding- of the Kuij^lits of St. Jolm and tlie Knig-hts-Templars. — 
Some time after the First Crusade two celebrated orders of knight- 
hood arose at Jerusalem. These were the Knights of St. John, or 
Hospitallers, and the Knights-Ttviplars, or Red Cross Knights. 
Both these orders became famous for their military exploits against 
the Moslems. 

SECTION III.— SECOND AND THIRD CRUSADES (A. D. ii47-'48 
AND ii89-'92). 

1. Loss ot Christian fortresses in Palestine. — Preaclung' of St. 
Bernard. — The Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem suffered many 
attacks from the Moslems, and some of the principal Christian fort- 
resses in Palestine were lost. Under these circumstances, Christian 
Europe undertook a Second Crusade. The pious and eloquent St. 
Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, in Burgundy, preached the cross in 
France and Germany (A. D. 1147). 

2. Second Crusade (A. D. 1147). — Expeditions of Conrad m. and 
Lonis VII. — Powerful expeditions were led toward the Holy Land 



154 



MEDL-'EVAL HISTORY. 



by Conrad III , Emperor of Germany, and Louis VII., King of 
France. The army under Conrad marched by way of Constanti- 
nople into Asia Minor, where it was decoyed by the treacherous 
Greek generals into a waterless desert, where the Turkish cavalry 
suddenly attacked and thoroughly annihilated the army of German 
Crusaders, only a tenth part of whom succeeded in escaping to Con- 
stantinople. The French army, led by King Louis VII., marched 
along the coast, but the greater portion of it perished from famine 
and fatigue, and by the swords of the Moslems, before reaching Jeru- 
salem. The shattered remnants of the immense hosts of French and 
Germans, led by the two sovereigns, after reaching the Holy Land, 
engaged in an unsuccessful siege of Damascus, which was the end 
of the Second Crusade. 

3. Conquest of Palestine and capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, Sul- 
tan of Egn>t. — The situation of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem 
became more and more perilous after the Second Crusade ; and at 
length the valiant Sal'adin, Sultan of Egypt, reduced a part of 
Palestine under his scepter. The magnanimous Saladin finally 
granted the Christians of Palestine a truce ; but when a Christian 
knight interrupted the passage of Saladin's mother, seized her 
treasures, and slew her attendants, the exasperated Sultan of Egypt 
recommenced hostilities, defeated the Christians in the battle of 
Tibe'rias, took Joppa, Sidon, Acre, and other towns; and in 1187 
Jerusalem also fell into the possession of the conquering Moslem. 
Saladin, who surpassed his Christian foes in virtue, generosity, and 
nobleness of heart, treated the inhabitants of the Holy City with 
mildness, but caused the crosses to be torn down and the furniture 
of the Christian churches to be destroyed. 

4. Third Crusade (A. D. llS9-'92).— Expeditions to the Holy Land. 

— Upon the arrival of intelligence of the capture of Jerusalem by 
Saladin, great alarm prevailed throughout the whole West of Europe; 
and from the shores of the Mediterranean to the coasts of the Baltic, 
armed bands set off for the Holy Land. The three most powerful 
sovereigns of Europe — Frederick Barbaros'sa of Germany, Philip 
Augustus of France, and Richard the Lion-hearted of England — led 
powerful armies against the Moslems (A. D. 11 89). 

5. Frederick Barharossa's victory at Iconiuiu. — His accidental death. 
— The Emperor Frederick P.arharossa with the Gernian army 
marched by land to Asia Minor, and defeated the Sultan of Ico'niura 
in a great battle near the walls of his chief city; but the noble- 
hearted German Emperor lost his life in a stream which he had at- 



THE CRUSADES. 



^55 



tempted to cross. His second son, Frederick, with a part of the 
expedition, proceeded to Palestine, and took part in the siege of 
Acre. 

6. Sieg'e and capture of Acre by Richard the Lion-hearted and Philip 
•AugTistiis. — Kings Richard the Lion-hc-arted and Philip Augustus, 

with the English and French armies, after reaching the Holy Land 
by sea, laid siege to Acre, which fell into their hands in 1192, after 
a siege of nearly two years, during which nine great battles were 
fought before the city. Richard the Lion-hearted was noted for his 
energy, ability, and valor, as well as for his pride, severity, and 
cruelty. 

7. Arrog'anoe and crnelty of Richard the Lion-hearted. — By the 
orders of Richard the Lion-hearted, the German banner, which 
Duke Le'opold of Austria had caused to be erected on the battle- 
ments of Acre, was torn down and trampled under foot by the 
English. When the Moslems failed to fulfill the stipulations for the 
payment of a ransom for the captive Saracens, 3,500 of them fell 
victims to the fiery temper of the English king. Richard's courage 
made him feared and respected by the Moslems; but notwithstanding 
his military skill and bravery, his efforts for the recapture of Jerusa- 
lem were unavailing. 

8. Richard's captiyity in Germany. — The Kings of England and 
France quarreled, and Philip returned to France. After defeating 
Saladin near As'calon (A. D. 1192), Richard set out on his return 
to England by sea. His vessel being driven by a storm to the coast 
of Italy, he proceeded to make his way home by land through Ger- 
many ; but was seized and imprisoned in the castle of Trifels by 
order of the Emperor Henry VL and Duke Leopold of Austria, in 
revenge for the insult to the German flag after the capture of Acre, 
and was only released upon the payment of a heavy ransom by the 
English people. 

SECTION IV.— FOURTH, FIFTH, SIXTH, AND SEVENTH CRUSADES 

(A. D. 1204, 1228, 1248, AND 1270). 

1. Fourth Crusade (A. D. 1204). — Temporary subversion of the Greek 
Empire. — The Fourth Crusade was undertaken in 1204 by French 
and Italian knights under Count Baldwin of Flanders, at the insti- 
gation of Pope Innocent III. Instead of going to the Holy Land, 
the Crusaders, after capturing Zara, in Dalmatia, for the Venetians 
whom they had hired to convey them to the East, proceeded to 
Constantinople to dethrone a usurper. After the Crusaders, led by 



1^6 MEDIyEVAL HISTORY. 

the blind old Dan'dolo, Doge of Venice, had restored the usurper's 
deposed father, Isaac An'gelus, to the Eastern throne, the people of 
Constantinople raised an insurrection, in which the Emperor Isaac 
Angelus and his son Alexius perished ; whereupon the French Cru- 
saders stormed and pillaged Constantinople, overthrew the Greek 
Empire, and established, in its stead, d^wtw Roman, ox Latin Empire, 
with Constantinople for its capital, and Count Baldwin of Flanders 
for its sovereign. This new Latin kingdom lasted fifty-six years 
(i 204-1 260), after which the old Greek Empire was restored in the 
person of Michael Palseol'ogus. 

2. Fifth Crusade (A. D. 1228). — Expedition of the Emperor Freder- 
iclf n. — Separate bands of Crusaders continually went to Palestine; 
and on one occasion 80,000 European children started on a Crusade 
to the Holy Land, but they all perished from hunger and fatigue 
on the way, or were sold into slavery. In 121S King Andrew 11. 
of Hungary began the Fifth Crusade by an unsuccessful expedition 
to Egypt. In 1228 the Emperor Frederick II. — while engaged in 
a bitter quarrel with Pope Gregory IX., by whom he was excom- 
municated — led an expedition to the Holy Land ; and by a treaty 
with Sultan Melek Kamel of Egypt, in 1229, secured Jerusalem and 
the greater part of the Holy Land for the Christians ; but, as the 
Pope had again excommunicated the Emperor for going to the Holy 
Land without relieving himself of his first excommunication, Fred- 
erick II. was crowned King of Jerusalem without being consecrated 
by the Church. 

3. Ravag-es of the Corasmians in Rilestine.— €aptiire and massacre 
of Jerusalem. — In 1243 the Coras'mians, fierce barbarians from the 
plains of Tartary, overran Palestine, carrying death and desolation 
wherever they appeared, took Jerusalem, massacred its inhabitants, 
destroyed the Holy Sepulchre, and wasted the flower of the Chris- 
tian chivalry in a desperate battle at Gaza; but the barbarians were 
finally defeated by the united forces of t!ie Christians and the Turks, 
who had for the moment combined against the common enemy. 

4. Sixth Crusade (A. D. 1248),— Expe(Ution of St. Louis to E?yi>t' 
— His captivity. — I'he ravages of the Corasmians in the Holy Land_ 
led to the Sixtli Crusade, which was conducted by the good French 
king, Louis IX., or St. Louis, who sailed with a powerful expedi- 
tion to Egypt in 124S. After taking Damiet'ta, the French -fleet 
was destroyed in the Nile by means of Greek fire, and St. Louis 
was taken prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, and only obtained his 
release by the payment of a heavy ransom (x\. D. 1249). In 1250 



THE CRUSADES. 



157 



the reigning dynasty of Egypt was overthrown ; and the Mamelukes 
— a race of Circassians hitherto held as slaves by the Sultans of 
Egypt — ruled that country thenceforth until its conquest by the 
Ottoman Turks in 15 17. 

5. Seventh Cnisatle (^A. D. 1270). — Expeditioii of St. Louis to Tiuiis. 
— His death. — In 1270 St. Louis undertook the Seventh and last 
Crusade, by an expedition against the Moors of Northern Africa. 
After taking Tunis, a pestilence carried St. Louis and most of his 
followers to their graves, and the survivors returned to France. In 
the meantime Prince Edward of England (afterward King Edward I), 
struck terror into the hearts of the Moslems by his many gallant 
exploits in Palestine. 

6. Sieg'e and captiire of Aoi'e by the Turks. — Loss of the Holy Land 
to the Chi'istiaus. — The Moslems gradually recovered their lost power 
in Palestine; and in 1291, a Turkish army of 200,000 men appeared 
before Acre, and after a vigorous siege, took that city by storm. 
The remaining Christians voluntarily retired from Syria, which for 
two centuries had been drenched with the blood of millions of 
Christians and Mohammedan warriors. 

SECTION v.— RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 

1. Influence of the Crusades on CMvalry. — The Crusades ennobled 
the knightly class by furnishing a higher aim to their efforts, and 
gave rise to the establishment of new orders, which presented a 
model of Chivalry and were presumed to possess all the knightly 
virtues. Of these new orders were the Knights of St. John, the 
Knights- Templars, and the Teutonic Knights, which combined the 
spirit of the knight and the monk, their vows being chastity, poverty, 
obedience, and war against the Moslems. 

2. The Knig'hts of St. John. — After the reconquest of the Holy 
Land by the Turks, the Knights of St. John established themselves 
in the island of Rhodes, which was finally wrested from them by 
the Ottoman Turks, in 1522, when they received the island of 
Malta from the celebrated Charles V., Emperor of Germany and 
King of Spain. 

3. The Kjiig-hts-Templars. — The Knights-Templars acquired great 
wealth by donations and legacies. After the Joss of their possessions 
in Pal(?stine, the greater number of them returned to France, where 
they abandoned themselves to irreligion and corruption, the con- 
sequence of which was the final dissolution of their order during 
the reign of King Philip the Fair (12S5-1314), the Grand Master, 



158 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. 

Jacques de Molay \zhak der mo-lay'\ and many others being burned 
alive, protesting their innocence to the last. Their wealth in gold 
went into the coffers of the king, while their fortresses and lands 
were bestowed on the Knights of St. John. 

4. The Teutonic Kjiig-hts. — The Teutonic Knights were celebrated 
for their services in the civilization of the countries on the shores 
of the Baltic sea. They defended Christianity against the heathen 
Prussians in the region of the Vistula, and converted the inhabitants 
of the territory between the Vistula and the Niemen to Christi- 
anity and established there the German language, customs, and 
civilization. The cities of Culm, Thorn, Elbing, Konigsburg, and 
others arose ; bishoprics and monasteries sprung up ; and German 
industry and civilization produced a complete change. 

5. Influence of the Crnsades on the Feudal System. — The Crusades 
gave rise to a free peasantry and tended to break up the Feudal 
System, as by their means great numbers of serfs received their 
freedom, and extended the power and influence of the burgher class 
and of the towns. The rich barons were compelled to sell their 
possessions for the purpose of raising money to equip troops and to 
transport them to the Holy Land. 

6. Diffusion of linowledg'e. — The Crusades promoted the diffusion 
of knowledge and the advancement of science and literature. Those 
who engaged in them were at first deplorably ignorant and illiterate; 
but when they came in contact with the Greek and Arabian civiliza- 
tion, they acquired a fondness for science and literature, and after 
returning to Europe they imparted the same spirit to their country- 
men. 

7. Development of conunerce. — The Crusades gave great encourage- 
ment to commerce, as by their means different countries were 
brought into communication and more intimate commercial relations 
with each other; and the advantage of a mutual exchange of pro- 
ducts was soon perceived. In consequence, great progress was made 
in the arts of navigation and ship-building ; and many flourishing 
cities, such as Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, acquired immense wealth 
and attained to vast commercial importance. The great Venetian 
traveller, Marco Polo, visited China and the far East. 

8. Liflnence of the Crusades on the Clim-ch. — Crusade against the 
Albigenses. — The Crusades gave greater power and influence to the 
clergy, and multiplied the riches of the Church. They also tended 
to exalt the religious enthusiasm produced by them into a spirit of 



E UR OPE AN NA TTONS. 1 5 9 

fanatical intolerance. This intolerance was soon manifested in a 
crusade against the Al'bigenses, a new religious sect which arose in 
the South of France, and which were a branch of the Walden'ses, or 
Vaudois \zio-dwah''], which arose in the valleys of Piedmont, in the 
twelfth century, and whose leader was Peter Waldo, a wealthy mer- 
chant of Lyons, who resigned all his wealth from motives of piety. 
Pope Innocent III. ordered the cross to be preached against the 
Albigenses and their protector, Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse ; 
whereupon bands of fanatical warriors overran the fertile region in- 
habited by the new sect, and spread death and desolation wherever 
they appeared, destroying cities, towns, and villages, massacring 
the inhabitants, and converting that beautiful region into a vast 
wilderness. Finally, in 1223, King Louis VIII. of France under- 
took a bloody campaign against the heretics; and, after a desolating 
war. Count Raymond was defeated and subdued, and the unfortu- 
nate creed of the Albigenses was extinguished in blood. 

9. The Assassins and Tlie Old Man of the Mountain. — About the time 
of the First Crusade, the Mohammedan prophet, Hassan, founded 
the fanatical sect of the Assassins, who dwelt in the mountains of 
Syria, and who became the terror, alike, of Christians, Jews, and 
Turks. These Assassins were blindly devoted to their chief, "/A^ 
Old Man of ihe Mountain," and paid the most implicit obedience 
to his commands ; and they believed that if they sacrificed their 
lives for his sake, they would certainly be rewarded with the highest 
joys of paradise. Whenever the Old Man of the Mountain con- 
sidered himself injured by any one, he dispatched some of his Assas- 
sins secretly to murder the aggressor. Thus was derived the com- 
mon name of assassin, which has ever since been applied to a secret 
murderer. 

CHAPTER IV. 
EUROPEAN NATIONS. 

SECTION I.— THE EMPIRE AND THE CHURCH. 

1. Guelfs and Gfhibellinos. — Accession of the Holienstaufens. — The 

two great powers of Europe during the Middle Ages were the 
Western, or Germano-Roman, Empire, and the Latin, or Roman 
Catholic, Church. The Emperor was regarded as the civil litead of 
Christendom, and the Pope as the spiritual head ; and the long and 
bitter struggle between them for supremacy, was a prominent feature 



l6o MEDI/EVAL HISTORY. 

of mediseval history. For three centuries, the Guelfs and Ghib'- 
ellines — the former the adherents of the Popes, and the latter the 
partisans of the Emperors — kept Italy and Germany involved in 
civil war. These party names originated at the siege of Weinsburg 
during the reign of Conrad III. (1138-1152), the first of the famous 
dynasty of the Ho'henstaufens, who occupied the imperial throne for 
112 years. Conrad III. was only King of Germany, having never 
been crowned Emperor. 

2. Frederick Barbarossa and the Lombard Leag^iie — Henry the Lion. 

— The most noted of the Hohenstaufens was the chivalrous Freder- 
ick Barbaros'sa (1152-1190) — the nephew and successor of Conrad 
III. Frederick Barbarossa led six expeditions to Italy against the 
Guelfs, and the rebellious city of Milan was twice besieged and 
taken, and at its second capture its walls were razed to the ground; 
but the other cities of Northern Italy then joined Milan in the 
Lombard League, and the Emperor was defeated by the Milanese in 
the battle of Lignano \Jcc/i-yan-o\ in 11 76, which led to the Peace 
of Constance j in 1183, by which Milan and the other Lombard cities 
gained their independence. Frederick Babarossa's great rival in 
Germany was the powerful Henry the Lion of Brunswick, Duke of 
Bavaria and Saxony, and head of the House of Guelf and ancestor 
of the present royal family of England. Henry the Lion was sub- 
dued by the Emperor after a bloody war, and found refuge in Eng- 
land. Frederick Barbarossa — as we have already seen — perished in 
the Third Crusade. 

3. Frederick Barbarossa's sons and successors. — Rival Emperors. — 

Frederick Barbarossa's son and successor, Henry VI. (1190-1197) 
obtained Naples and Sicily by marrying tlie heiress of the last Nor- 
man king of Naples. After Henry VI. 's death the Empire was in- 
volved in civil war by the election of two rival Emperors — Philip 
of Swabia, Henry's brother, by the Ghibellines, and Otho IV., son 
of Henry the Lion, by the Guelfs. After Philip's assassination, 
Otho quarreled with Pope Innocent III., by whom he was excom- 
municated and deposed. 

4. Tlie Emperor Frederick II. and Popes Gregory IX. and Innocent 

rv. — After Otho IV's death, Frederick II. (i 218-1250) — Frederick 
Barbarossa's grandson — came to the imperial throne. Frederick II., 
having been educated in the wisdom of the Saracens, had a friendly 
feeling for the Moslems; and was engaged in a constant struggle with 
Pope Gregory IX., who feared the Emperor's power in Italy and 



E UR OPE A AT NA TIONS. 1 6 1 

hated his liberal religious views. Frederick II. went on the Fifth 
Crusade while excommunicated by the Pope. After his return from 
Palestine, the Emperor subdued the Pope and his adherents in Italy, 
and finally reduced Milan and the Lombard towns to submission ; 
but Pope Gregory IX. and his successor, Innocent IV., renewed the 
excommunication against the Emperor, who was accused of being a 
blasphemer of God, a secret Mohammedan, and an enemy of the 
Christian Church ; whereupon the civil war between the Guelfs and 
Ghibellines again raged frightfully in both Italy and Germany; 
and several rival Emperors were chosen in Germany. After Fred- 
erick II. 's death, Naples and Sicily were declared papal fiefs and 
finally bestowed on the French House of Anjou \_an-joo'\ while the 
remaining members of the Hohenstaufen family were defeated and 
killed in battle, or beheaded by the executioner. 

5. The Hanseatic League and free' cities. — Other leagues. — During 
the reign of Frederick II., the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, 
Lubec, Stralsund, Riga, and others, formed the celebrated Hanse- 
at'ic League, in the interest of commerce and for the suppression of 
piracy. This celebrated commercial league finally embraced sev- 
enty cities and towns, maintained powerful fleets in the Northern 
seas, and carried on the commerce of Western Europe with the 
Asiatic nations as far eastward as China, by way of Novgorod, the 
capital of a flourishing republic, in what is now Northern Russia. 
The principal foreign depots of the Hanseatic League were London, 
Bruges, Bergen, and Novgorod. The free cities of Germany — as 
well as those of France, Spain, and Italy — possessed many privileges. 
Other celebrated leagues of German cities were the League of the 
Jihifte, in Western Germany, and the Swabian League in Southern 
Germany. 

6. The Interregnum. — Rudolf of Hapshurg and his successors. — The 

death of Frederick II. was followed by an Ititerregimm, or- virtual 
vacancy of the imperial throne, for twenty-three years (1250-12 73); 
during which great confusion and lawlessness prevailed in Germany; 
and foreign princes were elected Emperors, one party choosing 
Richard of Cornwall, brother of King Henry III. of England, and 
another faction electing Alfonso the Wise, King of Castile. After 
the Interregnum the imperial throne was occupied by the able and 
chivalrous Rudolf of Hapsburg (1273-1291), who, leaving Italy to 
take care of itself, restored order in Germany, destroying seventy 
castles of the robber-knights, and who, by the defeat and death of 
his rival, Ot'tocar, King of Bohemia, in the battle of Marchfeld, in 
II 



1 62 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. 

1278, became the founder of the illustrious royal Austrian House of 
Hapsburg. The next Emperor, Adolf of Nassau (1291-1298), was 
defeated and killed in battle against his rival and successor, Albert I. 
of Austria (i 298-1308) — the son of Rudolf of Hapsburg — who was 
assassinated by his nephew, John of Swabia. 

7. Rise of the Swiss Republic. — Switzerland (the ancient Helvetia) 
was a component part of the German Empire. The Hapsburgs 
attempted to annex Ihe Swiss cantons to the hereditary Austrian 
dominions ; but the sturdy Swiss mountaineers resisted the tyranny 
of the Emperor Albert's governors; and in 1307 the: League of Ruth 
was formed by the three forest cantons — Uri [oo'-re'], Schwytz, and 
Unterwalden \oon'-ter-wal-de>i'\ — to expel the tyrannical Austrian 
governors ; thus laying the foundations of the Helvetic Confedera- 
tion, or Swiss Republic; the three revolted cantons being afterward 
joined by the cantons of Berne, Lucerne, Zurich, and Zug. In 
1315 Duke Leopold of Austria — the Emperor Albert's brother — with 
a large force, was routed by a small band of Swiss in the narrow 
pass of Morgarten; and in 1386 another Duke Leopold of Austria 
was defeated and killed by the Swiss in the battle of Sempach, where 
the gallant Swiss knight, Arnold Winkelried of LTnterwalden, "made 
a path" for his countrymen into the ranks of the foe, burying the 
enemy's spears in his body. In 1499 the Emperor Maximilian I., 
after a disastrous defeat by the Swiss, was forced to acknowledge the 
independence of Switzerland by the Peace of Basle. 

8. Close of the contest hetwceii (iriielfs and Cfhibellines. — Tlie Golden 
Bull. — After the short reign of Henry VII. of Luxemburg (1308- 
1313), the election of two rival Emperors — Louis of Bavaria and 
Frederick the Fair of Austria — caused a ten years' civil war in 
Germany; but Frederick was defeated and taken prisoner in the 
battle of Miihldorf in 1328. Louis then became involved in a long 

• quarrel with Pope John XXII. , by whom he was excommunicated. 
Louis went to Rome, deposed the Pope, and caused an anti-pope to 
be elected ; but was soon driven off. He then returned to Germany, 
convened a Diet, and declared the Pope's confirmation unnecessary 
to the election of Emperors. A rival Emperor — Charles IV. of 
Luxemburg, son of the King of Bohemia — was chosen in Germany, 
but was not fully acknowledged until the death of Louis in a boar- 
hunt near Munich; when the long contest between Guelfs and 

• Ghibellines closed. Charles IV. (1347-1378) founded the univer- 
sity of Prague, and published the Golden Bull, or law confining the 
choice of Emperor to the seven leading Princes of the Empire. His 



EUROPEAN NATIONS. 1 63 

son and successor, the fiery-tempered Wen'ceslaus (13 78-1 400) — 
unable to check the lawless nobles and robber-knights — was de- 
posed by the Electors, and succeeded by Rupert of the Palatinate 
(1400-1410). 

9. Pope Boniface YIF ne Popes at ATi^non. — The Great Schism. 
— Wycliflfe aud Huss. — A - Boniface VIII. strenuously endeavored to 
uphold the Papal powe^ ; and in endeavoring to prevent the taxa- 
tion of the French clergy, he became involved in a violent quarrel 
with King Philip the Fair of France, who treated the Pope's bulls 
of excommunication with contempt and imprisoned the Papal legate 
in France, and whose officers in Rome made the Pope a prisoner. 
Boniface died of vexation at his humiliation, shortly after his forcible 
release by the Romans. His second successor, Clement V. — who 
had been Archbishop of Bordeaux \bor-do'\ and who had been 
elected Pope through the influence of King Philip the Fair — removed 
to Avignon [a-veen-'yoi], in the South of France, where tjie Popes 
resided for seventy-two years (1305-1377), entirely under French 
influence. Pope Gregory XL reestablished the Papal residence in 
Rome ; and his death was followed by the Great Schism, during 
which two, and afterwards three, Popes were ruling at the same 
time, each of whom excommunicated the other two. The damaging 
truths which three rival Popes told of each other, destroyed men's 
reverence for the Church; and several great Reformers — John 
Wyclifle in England and John Huss in Bohemia — preached against 
the abuses in the Church and the vices of the clergy. 

10. The Emperor Sigismmid and the Council of Constance. — Martyr- 
dom of Huss. — The Emperor Sigismund (141 0-143 7) — King of 
Hungary and brother of Wenceslaus — at the earnest solicitation of 
Pope John XXIII., convened a great Council of the Church at 
Constance, in Switzerland, to heal the schism in the Papacy and to 
reform the Church of its corruption. The Council of Constance 
was in session four years (1414-1418); and was attended by the 
Emperor Sigismund and Pope John XXIII., and also by 18,000 
clergymen, and learned men from all the universities of Europe — 
in all by about 150,000 persons. The first acts of the Council of 
Constance were directed against heresy. The dead Wycliffe's writ- 
ings were sentenced to the flames, and his remains were cast into the 
Severn ; and the Bohemian Reformer, John Huss — then a professor 
in the university of Prague — being provided with a safe-conduct by 
the Emperor Sigismund, was brought before the Council of 
Constance, by which he was condemned as a heretic and burned 



1 64 MEDTMVAL HISTORY. 

alive (A. D. 141 5). The next year (A. D. 141 6), Huss's friend 
and patron, Jerome of Prague, also suffered martyrdom at the stake. 

11. The Hussite War. — The martyrdom of Huss led to a furious 
religious war of seventeen years in Bohemia (1416-1431); durmg 
which the Hussites took a terrible revenge on the Emperor and the 
Church for the death of the great Reformer. Prague, the Bohemian 
capital, was taken and the Councillors were murdered by the 
Hussites; and when by the consequent death of the enraged ex- 
Emperor and King Wenceslaus, Sigismund became King of Bohe- 
mia, the war raged more fiercely than ever, and the valiant John 
Ziska, the blind general, gained many brilliant victories over the 
imperial armies. Though all the power of the Empire and a number 
of Papal interdicts were hurled against the Hussites, Sigismund only 
obtained possession of his Bohemian crown a short time before his 
death. 

12. Conncils of Basle and Ferrara. — The Council of Constance 
deposed the three rival Popes, and elected Martin V. to the chair 
of St. Peter. The Council of Basle — which remained in session 
eighteen years (i 431-1449) — asserted the supreme authority of the 
voice of the whole Church, in general council, and provided for the 
regular meeting of Church Councils. Pope Eugenius IV. — unable 
to control the Council of Basle — summoned a rival Council at 
Ferra'ra, in Italy, which was visited by the Eastern Emperor, John 
Paleol'ogus, and the Patriarch of the Greek Church, with a train of 
courtiers and Greek clergy. The Eastern Emperor — in order to 
gain the aid of Western Christendom against the Ottoman Turks — 
offered to recognize the Pope's supremacy ; but the authorities at 
Constantinople refused to ratify the treaty signed to that effect ; and 
fifteen years later (A. D. 1453), the Eastern Empire fell before the 
conquering Turks. 

13. Germany under the House of Hapshiu-^. — Land Peace and Im- 
perial Chamber. — With the short reign of Albert II. of Austria 
( 1438-1440), began the permanent accession of the House of Haps- 
burg to the imperial throne, Austrian princes being thereafter, with 
but a single exception, elected Emperors by the German Diet. The 
long reign of Albert's son, the weak Frederick III. (i 440-1 493), 
was signalized by great lawlessness in Germany ; and the marriage 
of his son and successor Maximilian I. (1493-15 19), with Mary 
of Burgundy, made the Hapsburgs the most powerful royal family in 
Europe, and laid the basis of a two centuries' rivalry between the 



E UR OPE AN NA TIONS. 1 65 

Empire and France. Under Maximilian I., the lawless contests 
between the German princes and nobles were settled by the estab- 
lishment of the Land Peace (landfriede), and by the institution of 
an Imperial Chamber to settle internal disputes; while the Empire 
was divided into ten Circles. 

SECTION II.— FEUDAL FRANCE UNDER THE CAPET AND VALOIS 

DYNASTIES. 

1. Weakness of the royal power under Hu^h Capet and his immediate 
successors. — France — which began its existence as a separate mon- 
archy with the dissolution of Charlemagne's empire by -the Partition 
Treaty of Verdun (A. D. 843) — remained under the weak Carlo- 
vingian dynasty until until 987 A. D.; when Hugh Capet \ka-pa'\ 
Count of Paris, usurped the French crown, thus founding the Cape- 
tian {ka-pe^-she-atf^ dynasty, which ruled France for 441 years. 
During the reigns of Hugh Capet (987-997), Robert the Pious 
(997-1031), Henry I. (1031-1060), Philip I. (1060-1108), Louis 
VI. (1108-1137), and Louis VH. (1137-1180), the royal power in 
France was reduced to a mere shadow ; the great nobles being vir- 
tually independent of the monarch, whose power over the eight 
powerful principalities in France — Normandy, Bretagne, Burgundy, 
Gascony, Flanders, Champagne, Aquitaine, and Toulouse — was 
merely nominal. Louis VL and Louis VIL granted charters of 
privileges to French towns or communes. The violence and lawless- 
ness of the French nobles reduced France to a most deplorable state. 

2. French possessions of the Kings of England. — Philip Augustus. 
— The acquisition of the crown of England by Duke William of 
Normandy in 1066, the accession of Henry Plantag'enet, who pos- 
sessed all Western France, to the English throne in 1154, and his 
marriage with the heiress of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of King 
Louis VIL of France, caused a long rivalry between England and 
France ; as the French kings claimed the right of feudal superiority 
over the English kings for the French possessions of the latter — a 
right which the English kings were unwilling to acknowledge. 
Philip Augustus (i 180-1223) — son and successor of Louis VII. — 
strengthened the royal power by reducing the great vassals to sub- 
mission, and won back Normandy and the other possessions of the 
Kings of England in France, defeating the ^lied English, Flemish, 
and German armies in the battle of Bouvines \boo-veeti~\ in 1214. 

3. Conquest of the Albigenses. — Louis IX., or St. Louis. — Sicilian 
Vespers. — The war against the religious sect of the Albigenses — 



1 66 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

begun during the reign of Philip Augustus, and continued during 
the short reign of his son and successor, Louis VIII. (1223-1226) — 
closed during the reign of Louis IX., or St. Louis (12 26-1 2 70); 
thus adding the large territory of Provence, in Southern France, to 
the French crown. St. Louis, the best of the Capets, put an end to 
feudal violence ; established the equality of nobles and serfs before 
the law, instituting royal courts of justice for the redress of indi- 
vidual wrongs; and gave France a new code of laws, and placed her 
in the front rank of the powers of Europe. The Crusades of St. 
Louis have already been mentioned. During the reign of his son 
and successor — Philip the Hardy (12 70-1 285) — his brother, Charles 
of Anjou \an-joo'\ became King of Naples and Sicily; but by the 
frightful massacre of 8,000 French in Sicily — the Sicilian Vespers — 
Charles lost Sicily. 

4. Philip the Fair aud liis sons. — The Salic Law. — Philip the 
Hardy's son and successor — Philip the Fair (i 285-1314) — humbled 
Pope Boniface VIII.; suppressed the order of Knights- Templars, 
causing the Grand Master, Jacques de Molay {zhak-de-mo-ld^ and 
others to be burned alive ; and summoned representatives of the 
Third Estate, or communes, to meet with the nobility and clergy 
in the States-General of the kingdom, to give their consent to the 
levy of taxes. It was during the reign of Philip the Fair, that the 
seventy-two years' residence of the Popes was established at Avig- 
non, in Southern France. Philip the Fair's three sons — Louis X. 
(1314-1316), Philip the Tall (1316-1321), and Charles the Fair 
(1321-1328) — were the last of the direct male line of the Capets; 
and the States-General having passed the Salic Law, which prohib- 
ited females from wearing the crown of France, the House of Valois 
[t'diZ-ze/ao/] ascended the French throne in 1328. 

5. Philip of Valois and beg-iuning of the Hundred Years' War. — The 
first king belonging to the Valois dynasty was Philip of Valois 
(1328-1350), whose right to the French throne was disputed by 
King Edward III. of England, whose mother was a daughter of 
Philip the Fair ; and thus arose that long and fierce struggle be- 
tween England and France, known as the Hundred Years' War. 
During the reign of Philip of Valois occurred the great defeat of the 
French by the English in the battle of Crecy (A. D. 1356), and 
also the frightful ravages of the Black Plague, which destroyed half 
the population of France. During Philip's reign, Dauphiny was 
annexed to the French dominions, on condition that the French 
king's eldest son should thereafter be called the Dauphin. 



EUROPEAN NATIONS. 167 

6. King John tlie Gfood's captivity in England. — ^Marcel's insnrrection 
and the Jacquerie. — John the Good (1350-1364) — the son and suc- 
cessor of PhiHp of Vdois — having been held in captivity in England 
after his great defeat by the English Black Prince in the battle of 
Poitiers (A. D. 1356), his son, the Dauphin, acted as regent; and 
the populace of Paris, under Etienne Marcel, rose in insurrection, in 
consequence of the annulling of newly-granted privileges to the 
people by the States-General of the kingdom; but Marcel's insur- 
rection and the frightful peasant revolt of the Jacquerie \zhak-e-rd'\ 
were quelled with great severity. Calais and Aquitaine having been 
ceded to the King of England by the Treaty of Bretigny \bre-teeri-ye\ 
the Black Prince and his wife, " the Fair Maid of Kent," established 
their court at Bordeaux \bor-dd\ 

7. The Ducal line of Burgundy. — John the Good conferred the 
Dukedom of Burgundy on his son Philip the Good in fief; thus 
founding the celebrated Ducal line of Burgundy — Philip the Bold 
(1363- 1404), John the Fearless (1404-1419), Philip the Good 
(1419-1467), and Charles the Bold (1467-1477) — whose dominions 
were among the most flourishing and prosperous in Europe ; includ- 
ing, in addition to Burgundy, the whole of the Netherlands, with 
their flourishing manufacturing and commercial towns — Ghent, 
Bruges, Antwerp, and others. 

8. Charles the Wise and Charles TI. — Popular revolts, civil war, 
and English invasion. — Charles V. , //i<? Wise (i 364-1 380) — the son 
and successor of John the Good — founded the royal library of Paris; 
and his great general, Du Guesclin \_ga-klan^\ drove the English 
from France. During the regency during the minority and insanity 
of Charles VI. (1380-1422) — the son and successor of Charles the 
Wise — the French towns and peasants revolted against governmental 
oppression, but were reduced to submission and- severely punished. 
The revolted Flemings were overthrown in the great battle of Ros- 
bec, in 1382; in which the Flemish leader, Philip van Artevel'de, and 
25,000 of his men were slain by the French under Oliver Clissons 
\klees-son^\ High-Constable of France. While the kiagdom was 
torn by civil war between the factions headed respectively by the 
Dukes of Burgundy and Orleans, Henry V. of England invaded 
France and defeated the French in the great battle of Agincourt 
\a-zhin-koot''\ in 141 5. By the Treaty of Troyes\trvja'w'\ in 1422 
— the year of the death of both kings — the English king was ac- 
knowledged successor to the French crown, the Burgundian faction 
having sided with the English. 



1 68 ■ MEDIMVAL HISTORY. 

9. Charles Vn. — Joan of Arc and close of the Hundred Years' War. — 

The English took town after town, and were soon in possession of 
all France except Orleans, which they were then besieging; but at 
this crisis, Joan of Arc, a young peasant girl, from Dom Remy, in 
Lorraine, announced that she had a divine mission to deliver her 
country from the English invaders, and to obtain the coronation of 
Charles VII. — the son and successor of Charles VI. — at Rheims 
\rdnz\. At the head of the French army, Joan of Arc, the Maid 
of Orleans, compelled the English to raise the siege of Orleans in 
1429, and wrested town after town from the English, both English 
and French being itifluenced by superstition. Finally, in 1431, the 
valiant Maid of Orleans fell into the hands of the Duke of Burgundy, 
who delivered her into the power of the English, by whom she was 
burned alive for witchcraft, at Rouen \_yoo-€ii\ the capital of Nor- 
mandy. Still the French continued successful, and by 1453 the 
English were driven out of all France except Calais; thus closing 
the Hundred Years' War m the triumph of the French, and Charles 
VII., the Vieiorious (1422-1461), firmly held the French throne. 

10. Louis XI. and Charles the Bold of Burg-imdy. — Consolidation of 
France. — The crafty and treacherous Louis XI. (1461-1483) — son 
and successor of Charles the Victorious — was confronted by a league 
of French nobles, known as the League of the Publie Good, and was 
taken prisoner by his powerful vassal, Duke Charles the Bold of 
Burgundy, and only obtained his release on the most humiliating 
conditions; but when Charles the Bold — after his defeats by the 
Swiss at Granson (1476) and Morat (1477) — was killed in battle 
with the Duke of Lorraine at Nancy in 1477, Louis XI. annexed 
Burgundy and the other great fiefs to the French crown ; and feudal 
France passed away with the consolidation of the kingdom into a 
powerful absolute monarchy. Louis XI. spent his last days in sus- 
picious solitude in the gloomy castle of Plessis \_ples'-se'\. 

11. Wars of Cliarles Vm. and Louis XIL in Italy. — Rise of Euro- 
pean States-System. — The next two French kings — Charles VIII. 
(1483-1498), son of Louis XL, and last of the direct line of Valois, 
and Louis XII. (1498-1515), "the Father of his People," the first 
of the Orleans branch of Valois — acquired Brittany by conquest 
and marriage, and engaged in unprofitable expeditions to Italy 
against the Spaniards, for the possession of Naples and Milan. The 
wars of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. in Italy, and the alliances 
among the European powers growing therefrom, gave rise to the 
system of the balance of power, or the States-System of Europe. 



EUROPEAN NATIONS. 169 

SECTION III. — FEUDAL ENGLAND UNDER THE NORMAN AND 
PLANTAGENET DYNASTIES (A. D. 1066-1485). 

1. William the Conqueror and the Feudal System. — Other Norman 
Eiugs. — We have seen that by the result of the battle of Hastings, 
Duke William of Normandy, or William the Conqueror, became 
King of England (A. D. 1066). He established the Feudal System 
in England by dividing the lands of the conquered people among 
his Norman favorites, and the Anglo-Saxon nobility became slaves 
to their Norman lords. The accounts of the surveys of the lands 
then made were preserved in Domesday Book, which is still preserved 
in the Tower of London. Succeeding Norman Kings of England 
were the Conqueror's sons, William Rufus (1087-1100) and Henry 
I. (1100-1135), and their nephew, Stephen of Blois (1135-1154); 
the last a usurper, who was involved in civil war with Henry's 
daughter, Matilda, the rightful heir. 

2. Henry 11., the first of the Plautagenets, and Thomas a Bccket. — 
Conquest of Ireland. — With the reign of Henry H., or Henry Plantag'- 
enet (A. D. 1154-1189) — son of Matilda and her French husband, 
Geoifrey Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou — began the renowed dynasty 
of the Plantagenets, who wore the English crown for 331 years. 
Henry H. possessed more territory in France than the French king 
himself; namely, Normandy and large territories in the West of 
France — Aquitaine, Anjou, Poitou, and Maine. Henry's attempt 
to restrict the power of the clergy by the Constitutions of Clarendon 
involved him in a violent quarrel with the Pope and with Thomas 
a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, and ended with Becket's assas- 
sination by four knights — a crime for which the king did penance 
by allowing the monks to assault him with rods; while Becket was 
cannonized by the Pope, and Henry threatened with excommunica- 
tion. In H72 A. D., Ireland (the ancient Hibernia) — which had 
been Christianized by St. Patrick in the fifth century, and which 
was then divided into four kingdoms, Ulster, Munster, Lienster, and 
Connaught — was, with the Pope's consent, conquered and annexed 
to the English realm. King William the Lion, of Scotland, was taken 
prisoner by some English barons, and was only released upon 
acknowledging the English king as his feudal superior. Henry's 
sons, encouraged by their mother, rebelled against their father. 

3. Richard I. and Jolm. — Mag-ua Charta. — Henry III. and the first 
Parliament. — Henry II. 's two sons — Richard the Lion-hearted 
(1189-1199), who spent most of his reign as a Crusader in Palestine 
and a captive in Germany, and the weak John (11 99-1 2 16) — reigned 



170 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



successively. John, surnamed Lackland, was deprived of all the 
possessions of the Plantagenets in France by King Philip Augustus 
of France. In a quarrel about the appointment of Stephen Langdon 
as Archbishop of Canterbury, John was compelled to acknowledge 
himself a vassal of Pope Innocent III., wjio also laid England under 
an interdict. At Runnymede, on the Thames \temz\ near Windsor 
(June 15, 1 215), the rebellious English barons forced John to sign 
Magna Charta \kar'-ta'\ (Great Charter) — the foundation of English 
constitutional liberty. John's son and weak successor, Henry III. 
(12 1 6-1 2 7 2), in a civil war with his barons, was defeated and taken 
prisoner at Lewes, in 1264, by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester 
\Jes'-ter\ who summoned the first Parliament, to which the English 
boroughs, cities, and counties sent representatives — the foundation 
of the future House of Commons, or popular branch of the English 
Parliament — the real beginning of true representative government. 
Henry III. was released by his son Edward's victory at Evesham, in 
1265, where the Earl of Leicester and his son were slain. 

4. Edwartl I. — Conquest of Wales and wars with Scotland. — Edward 
n. — Bannockbiirn. — The chivalrous Edward I. (i 272-1307) — Henry 
III.'s son and successor — conquered Wales in 1282; the Welsh 
prince, Llewel'lyn, being slain in battle, and his brother David and 
the Welsh bards being massacred ; while Edward proclaimed his 
infant son, Edward of Ccernar'von, Prince of Wales — a title ever since 
borne by the English sovereign's eldest son. Edward sustained John 
Baliol's claim to the crown of Scotland against several rival com- 
petitors; but when Baliol renounced his promised vassalage to the 
English king, Edward invaded Scotland, defeated Baliol at Dunbar 
in 1296, and dethroned him, carrying to London the Scots crown 
and sceptre and the sacred stone coronation-chair at Scone. The 
Scots resisted, and under the valiant patriot, William Wallace, de- 
feated the English at Stirling in 1297; but Edward defeated Wal- 
lace at Falkirk in 1298, carried him a prisoner to London, and 
caused him to be executed ; after which the Scots made Robert 
Bruce king and renewed their struggle for independence. The 
great and warlike Edward I.'s son and successor — the weak Edward 
II. (1307-1327) — mvaded Scotland with 100,000 men; but his de- 
feat by the Scots king, Robert Bruce, with only 30.000 men, at 
Ban'nockburn (June 24, 1314), established the independence of 
Scotland, which the English finally acknowledged by the Peace of 
Northampton, \w 1328; and Edward II. was dethroned and mur- 
dered at the instigation of his rebellious queen and barons. 



EUROPEAN NA TIONS. 1 71 

5. Edward HI. and his wars with France. — Crecy and Poitiers. — 
Eng-lish nationality. — The chivalrous Edward III. (1327-1377) — 
Edward II's. son and successor — imprisoned his mother because of 
her treatment of his father, and put her favorite, Roger Mortimer, 
to death. Edward III. defeated the Scots at Halidon Hill in 1333; 
and claiming the French crown because his mother was a daughter 
of Philip the Fair of France, he invaded France, defeated the 
French king, Philip of Valois, at Crecy (August 25, 1346), and be- 
sieged and took Calais in 1347 — that key to France remaining in 
England's possession two centuries. King David Bruce of Scotland 
having invaded England, was defeated and taken prisoner by Ed- 
ward's queen, Phillip'pa, at Nevil's Cross, near Durham (October 
10, 1346); and Edward's heroic son, Edward the Black Prince, 
with only 12,000 men, invading Western France, defeated King 
John the Good of France, at the head of 60,000 men, at Poitiers 
\j>waw-te-d'\ (September 19, 1356), and carried him a prisoner to 
London, where he was generously treated. Both the French and 
Scottish kings were ransomed by their subjects, and Edward re- 
nounced all his claims to France except Calais and Aquitaine, and 
the Black Prince established his court at Bordeaux \bor-do''\ ; but 
the escape of the French hostages caused King John to return vol- 
untarily to captivity in London, where he died in 1364. The Black 
Prince died in 1376 — one year before his father. Parliament was 
now divided into two branches — the House of Lords, consisting of 
the nobles and bishops, and the House of Commons, consisting of 
the people's representatives. The Normans and Anglo-Saxons now 
became blended into one nationality, and English took the place of 
Norman-French as the recognized language in law ; while English 
literature took its rise in the Travels of Sir John Mandeville, the 
poems of Geoffrey Chaucer and John Gower, and the sermons and 
Bible translations of the great Oxford professor and divine, John 
Wyclifife, "the Morning Star of the Reformation," who boldly de- 
nied the Pope's assumptions. 

6. Richard II. — Wat Tyler's Insurrection. — Usuri)ation of Henry of 
Lancaster. — In 13S1 — during the regency during the minority of 
the youthful Richard II. (13 7 7-1 399), the son of the Black Prince 
and successor of Edward III. — the blacksmith Wat Tyler, incensed 
at the brutal tax-gatherers, broke .into London at the head of a mob 
of 100,000 men, who murdered the Lord Chancellor and the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, plundered the warehouses, and burned the 
palaces and mansions of the nobles; but Wat Tyler's insolence to 



172 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY, 



the young king caused William Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, 
to kill the blacksmith ; and order was restored upon the king's 
promise to abolish serfdom — a promise soon broken. The weak 
and profligate Richard IL forcibly released himself from the regency 
of his three uncles — the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester 
— and the last was murdered in prison. Richard banished his 
cousin, Henry of Lancaster, surnamed BoUngbroke, for fighting a 
duel, and seized his estates in 1399; whereupon Henry returned to 
England, dethroned Richard by act of Parliament, and usurped the 
crown with the title of Henry IV., Richard being afterward mur- 
dered in prison. 

7. House of Lancaster. — Hoiu-y ^\^, Hcury V., Henry VI. — Ag-in- 
court. — Joan of Arc. — Henry IV. (1399-1413) — the first of the 
House of Lancaster — overthrew the rebellious Percys, his former 
adherents, at Shrewsbury (July 21, 1403), where Henry Percy, sur- 
named Hotspur, was killed. Henry V. (1413-1422) — the chival- 
rous son and successor of Henry IV. — invaded France, and with only 
11,000 men he defeated 60,000 Frenchmen at Agincourt \a-zhin- 
koor'~\ (October 24, 1415); and by the Treaty of Troves \trwmv\, 
in the year of his death, was acknowledged heir to the French 
crown. Henry V. cruelly persecuted the Lollards — Wycliffe's fol- 
lowers — ^whose leader, Lord Cobham, died a martyr's death at the 
stake ; and the First Reformation was completely suppressed. Dur- 
ing the regency under the infant son and successor of Henry V. — 
Henry VI. (142 2-1 461) — the English conquered all France except 
Orleans ; but they were soon deprived of their conquests by the valor 
of the heroic Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, whose capture and 
cruel death on the charge of sorcery did not prevent the final expul- 
sion of the English from all France, except Calais, by 1453. 

8. "Wars of tlie Roses (A. D. 1455-1485). — Jack Cade's rebellion 
in England in 1450 was quelled, and Cade was put to death. In 
1455 Richard, Duke of York — the king's relative — claimed the 
English crown and began h. civil war against Henry VI. Thus be- 
gan the Wars of the Roses — the badge of the House of Lancaster 
being a red rose, and the badge of the House of York a white rose. 
This civil war for thirty years deluged England with the blood of 
her own people ; and destroyed eighty princes of the blood royal, 
and almost annihilated the ancient nobility of England. The 
greatest general in the Wars of the Roses was the Duke of York's 
wife's brother, Nevil, Earl of Warwick — the richest nobleman in 
England. The cause of the helpless and idiotic Henry VI. was 



EUROPEAN NA TIONS. 1 73 

managed by his heroic and masculine wife, Margaret of Anjoii. In 
the first battle of St. Albans, in 1455, King Henry VI. was defeated, 
wounded, and taken prisoner by the Duke of York. Margaret was 
defeated by the Earl of Warwick at Northampton in 1460 ; but the 
Duke of York was defeated and killed in battle with Margaret at 
Wakefield in 1461, his head being cut off and encircled with a 
paper crown and placed on the gates of York. The Earl of War- 
wick was also defeated by Margaret in the second battle of St. 
Albans, but the young Duke of York entered London and was pro- 
claimed King Edward IV. (A. D. 1461.) 

9. House of York. — Kiii^ Edward IV. and Warwick the Kin^-maker. 
— Under Edward IV. (i 461 -1483) — the first of the House of York 
— the Wars of the Roses continued ; and Margaret was defeated by 
the Earl of Warwick at Towton in 1461, where 36,000 Lancastrians 
were slain. Offended at King Edward's marriage with Lady Eliza- 
beth Grey, the Earl of Warwick deserted to the Lancastrians, drove 
Edward from the country, and restored Henry VI. to the throne ; 
but Edward returned and recovered his throne, and Warwick, the 
King-maker, was defeated and slain at Barnet (A. D. 1471), and 
Margaret and her son were overthrown and made prisoners at 
Tewksbury (A. D. 1471). Henry VI. and his son were murdered 
by King Edward's brothers, and Margaret ended her days in France. 

10. Edward T. and Richard ni.— Battle of Bosworth.— End of 
Feudal England. — Edward V. — the youthful son and successor of 
Edward IV. — and his youthful brother, were murdered at the instiga- 
tion of their wicked paternal uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester 
\^glos' -te7-\, who had caused the young king's maternal uncles — Lords 
Rivers, Grey, and Hastings — to be beheaded, and usurped the 
throne as Richard III. ; but the wicked usurper soon found a com- 
petitor in the young Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond — the only 
remaining heir of the House of Lancaster — and Richard III. was 
defeated and slain at Bosworth (August 14, 1485), and the victorious 
Earl of Richmond was hailed as King Henry VII. The battle of 
Bosworth — the most important in English history since that of Hast- 
ings — ended at once the Wars of the Roses, the Plantagenet dynasty, 
and the Feudal System in England. 

11. Henry Vn., the first of the Tudors. — Ahsolnte royal power. — 
Henry VII. (i 485-1 509) — the first of the Tudor dynasty — united 
the rival claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster by marrying 
the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. and heiress of the 
House of York. Two imposters — Lambert Simnel, an Oxford 



174 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



baker's son, and Perkin Warbeck, a Flemish butcher's son — person- 
ated the dead heirs of Edward IV. and claimed the crown ; but 
were defeated and made prisoners, Simnel becoming a menial in the 
king's household, and Warbeck being hanged at Tyburn. Henry 
VII. — noted for his unbounded avarice and his love of peace — made 
the royal power absolute in England ; and at his death in 1509 he 
was succeeded by his son, Henry VIII. 

SECTION IV.— ITALIAN STATES. 

1. Italy under the German Emperors. — Mediaeval Italian civilization. 

After the Partition Treaty of Verdun, in S43, Italy remained under 
the weak Carlovingian dynasty a half century. In 962 A. D., the 
Emperor Otho the Great of Germany annexed Italy to the Holy 
Roman Empire of Germany. For three centuries Italy was dis- 
tracted by the civil wars between the Guelfs and the Ghibellines — 
the former the adherents of the Popes, and the latter the supporters 
of the Emperors of Germany. During the whole period of the 
Middle Ages, Italy was the seat of European civilization, wealth, 
culture, and refinement. The most important states of mediaeval 
Italy were the papal state of Rome; the duchy of Milan ; the duchy 
of Savoy; the kingdom of Naples and Sicily ; and the famous repub- 
lics of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Florence — noted for their extensive 
commerce and maritime power, and for their political freedom and 
high state of civilization. 

2. Republic of Tenieeaud its maritime supremacy. — Venice — which 
dated its existence from the time of Attila the Hun's invasion of 
Italy — excelled other Italian republics in the extent of its commerce 
and its naval power ; and was for centuries the mistress of the Medi- 
terranean, and controlled Europe's commerce with the East. The 
Venetians made St. Mark their patron saint, having brought his 
body from the East. The magnificent works of Venice — such as 
the cathedral of St. Mark, the palace of the Doge, the place of St, 
Mark, and the bridge of the Rialto {re-ahl' -to\ — made this city of 
islands, with bridges and canals instead of streets, the admiration 
and wonder of the world. The ceremony of "wedding the Adri- 
atic " — consisting of casting a ring into the sea by the Doge, to 
show that the sea was subject to Venice, as a bride is to her husband 
— was annually performed. Venice — at first a perfect democracy, 
celebrated for its political freedom — at length became torn by inter- 
nal dissensions ; and the introduction of luxury and wealth brought 
their attendant evils — political corruption and the loss of civic virtue. 



E UR OPE AN NA TIONS. 1 7 5 

In the fourteenth century the government became an aristocracy 
under the Doges (Dukes) and the Council of Ten, which, with its 
secret spies and its dungeons, was enabled to exercise a most un- 
mitigated tyranny, and to suppress every effort to restore the demo- 
cratic constitution. Venice then declined, and its commercial 
glory received its death-blow by the discovery of the sea-passage to 
India in 1497. In 1508 the powerful League of Ca?iibray was 
formed against Venice by Spain, France, the German Empire, and 
the Pope; but the allies soon quarrelled, and the league was dis- 
solved. After this, for two centuries, Venice waged many bloody 
wars with the Ottoman Turks. 

3. Kepublics of Genoa and Pisa. — The republic of Genoa — also a 
flourishing commercial and maritime power — was the great rival of 
Venice for the control of the Eastern commerce ; but in the many 
wars between the two republics, Genoa had to yield the supremacy 
to her great rival. The contests between the democracy and aris- 
tocracy and political corruption led to the decline of Genoa, and 
the republic was conquered by the French early in the sixteenth 
century, but its independence was reestablished in 1528 by the 
great Genoese admiral, Andrea Do'ria, "the Father of his Country 
and the Restorer of its Liberties." In 1547, Fiesco attempted to 
deprive the family of Doria of the office of Doge, but the conspiracy 
failed by the unexpected death of Fiesco. Pisa — a flourishing city 
of Tuscany, celebrated for its leaning tower — was also a prosperous 
commercial republic, but was conquered by Genoa, and finally by 
Florence in 1406. 

4. Repul)Iic of Florence and its literary preeminence. — Tlie Medici. — 
Florence — the most flourishing republic of Middle Italy and the seat 
of mediaeval Italian literature — rivalled ancient Athens in the free- 
dom of her political institutions, and in her patronage of literature 
and the fine arts. The great poets, Dante and Petrarch, and the 
great novelist, Boccaccio, flourished at Florence. The commercial 
spirit of her citizens made Florence a wealthy and powerful republic. 
The Florentines wove in silk and wool, made jewelry, and were the 
leading bankers of Europe. The gold florin — first coined in 1252 — 
became the standard currency of Europe. Florence^ — at first a model 
democracy — in the fifteenth century passed under the absolute rule of 
the illustrious family of the Medici [fned'-e-che'\ ; and under Cosmo de 
Medici (1428-1464) and his renowned grandson, Lorenzo " the Mag- 
nificent" (1472-1492), Florence enjoyed a high degree of prosperity, 
as the seat of European civilization, culture and refinement. After 



176 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. 

Lorenzo's death, the earnest discourses of the Dominican monk and 
reformer, Savonaro'la, induced the Florentines to drive out the 
Medici and to restore the democratic republic; but the ''bold 
prophet of Florence" was excommunicated by the Pope, and, at the 
instigation of the clergy, was tried, convicted, and burned to death 
as a disturber of the Church and a corrupter of the people. The 
Medici returned and recovered their power, and after being again 
banished were restored by the forcible intervention of Pope Clem- 
ent VII. and the Emperor Charles V., who besieged and took 
Florence, and placed Alexander de Medici as Duke over the con- 
quered republic. Alexander's tyranny caused his assassination in a 
l^opular tumult, but Florence remained under the Medici until 1737. 
Among the great men who ornamented the court of the Medici 
were the artist, Michael Angelo, and the historian and statesman, 
Macchiavel'li. 

5. The Diicliy of Milan. — As we have seen, after many bloody wars 
with Frederick Barbarossa, Milan and the Lombard League won 
their independence of the German Emperor by the battle of Lig- 
nano in 11 76, and the Peace of Constance in 1183. The Duchy of 
Milan, under the renowned families of'Visconti and Sforza, after- 
ward became powerful in Northern Italy. In 1500 Milan was con- 
quered, but again lost, by King Louis XII. of France. In 15 15 
King Francis I. of France conquered Milan by defeating the Swiss 
and Milanese in the battle of Marignan'o ("the battle of the 
giants"); but in 1525 Francis I. was defeated and taken prisoner 
by the Spaniards, who governed Milan thereafter for two centuries, 
until 1 7 14, after which the House of Austria held possession of the 
duchy until 1866. 

6. The Duchy of Savoy. — The western part of Northern Italy fell 
gradually under the control of the powerful Counts of Savoy, who 
eventually erected their territory into the Duchy of Savoy, which 
lost many of its territories in subsequent wars with Burgundy, Milan, 
and France; and Geneva was lost in the sixteenth century; but the 
Dukes of Savoy eventually conquered Sardinia and Genoa, and in 
1720 the Duchy of Savoy became the Kingdom of Sardinia; and 
the Savoyard dynasty now occupies the throne of the Kingdom of 
Italy, formed in 1861. 

7. Papal Rome. — Cola di Rienzi. — From the time that Pepin the 
Little bestowed Rome and its adjacent territory on Pope Adrian I., 
Rome was governed by the Popes, with several interruptions, until 
1870. During the seventy-two years' residence of the Popes at 



E UR OPE AN NA TIONS. 177 

Avignon (1305-13 7 7), Rome was a prey to the violence of domestic 
factions, headed by the families of Orsini, and Colonna; until 1347, 
when a new Roman Republic was established under the fiery orator, 
Cola di Rienzi, "the Last of the Tribunes," who, by loading his 
people with oppressive taxes, lost his popularity and was driven 
away after a short rule of seven months, and who, after returning in 
1354, was killed during a tumult in the city. After the return of 
the Popes to Rome, a few Popes — such as Nicholas V. and Pius II. 
(^neas Silvius) — endeavored to reform Church and State, and 
patronized literature and science; but Alexander VI., who bought 
his election, was the worst Pope that ever occupied the Chair of St. 
Peter, frequently poisoning his political rivals and wealthy cardinals 
to secure their estates, and his death was caused by accidentally 
drinking poisoned wine intended for another. Alexander's succes- 
sor, Julius II. (1503-1513), was a warlike Pope, and enlarged his 
dominions by conquering Bologna, Ancona, Ferrara, and other 
towns. Leo X. (1513-1521) — the accomplished son of Lorenzo de 
Medici of Florence — was a great patron of men of genius; and the 
great artist, Raphael, " the divine painter," flourished at his court. 
One of his great objects was the completion of St. Peter's Church at 
Rome. The Popes now ranked more as Italian princes' than as 
Heads of the Christian Church. 

8. Naples and Sicily. — The foundations of the kingdom of Naples 
and Sicily were laid by the Norman chief, Robert Guiscard, who, 
in 1060, conquered Southern Italy, and whose nephew, Roger II., 
became the first king of Naples and Sicily. After the extinction of 
the Norman dynasty upon the death of William II., the grandson 
of Roger II. in 11 86, the kingdom of Naples and Sicily fell to the 
German House of Hohenstaufen by the marriage of the Emperor 
Henry VI. with the Norman heiress; but during the contests be- 
tween the Guelfs and Ghibellines, the Hohenstaufens were over- 
thrown, Manfred being defeated and killed in the battle of Bene- 
vento in 1266, by his rival, Charles of Anjou, the brother of St. 
Louis, King of France; Pope Urban IV. having bestowed Naples 
and Sicily, as papal fiefs, upon the House of Anjou; and Manfred's 
brother and successor, Conradine, being defeated, taken prisoner, 
and beheaded. The House of Anjou then ruled Naples and Sicily, 
but the tyranny of Charles of Anjou led to the massacre of 8,000 
French in Sicily on Easter day, 1282 — the Sicilian Vespers — by 
which the House of Anjou lost Sicily, which fell to the Kings of 
Aragon, who also acquired Naples in 1435. In 1493 King Charles 



lyg MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

VIII. of France conquered and lost Naples, and only effected his 
safe retreat to France by his victory at Fornovo in 1494. In 1500 
his successor, King Louis XII. of France, conquered Naples, but was 
driven away in 1504 by the Spaniards, who retained Naples for two 
centuries. 

SECTION v.— SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 

1. Wars betrveeii the Moors and Christians. — For a period of eight 
centuries, the Saracens and Moors, after establishing themselves in 
the Spanish peninsula, were engaged in constant wars with the 
Christian Spaniards, who, in the course of time, erected the power- 
ful Christian kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Navarre, and Portugal. 
In 1 2 1 2 the united armies of Aragon and Castile broke the power of 
the Moors by a great victory in the battle of Tolosa, in the Sierra 
Morena; but the Moorish kingdom of Granada was founded in 
1 238, and the final overthrow of the Moslems was delayed by wars 
among the Christian Spaniards. The wars with the Moors pro- 
duced a spirit of romantic chivalry and love of freedom among the 
Christian Spaniards. 

2. Aragon and Castile. — Aragon conquered the Eastern provinces 
of Valencia, Murcia, Catalonia, and also the Mediterranean islands 
of Majorca, Minorca, Sardinia, and Sicily, and the kingdom of 
Naples. Castile wrested much of Southern Spain — including the 
towns of Seville, Cadiz, and Cordova — from the Moors. The most 
renowned kings of Aragon were Peter III. (i 276-1 285) and Alfonso 
V, (1416-1458). The most celebrated kings of Castile were Alfonso 
X., the Wise (i 252-1284), noted for his love of learning, particu- 
larly astronomy, and Alfonso XI. (131 2-1350), famous for his 
victories over the Moors. The Cortes — the national assembly of 
Estates in Aragon and Castile — possessed much freedom, and the 
monarchs were obliged to obtain their assent to the levy of taxes 
(alcavalla). 

3. Rise of Portngal. — Alfonso VI. of Castile bestowed the Earldom 
of Portugal on his chivalrous son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, who 
was to rule in fief. The Earl Alfonso I., having gained a great 
victory over the Moors, was crowned, in 1139, the first King of 
Portugal, which he liberated from Castilian supremacy. King 
Alfonso III. extended Portugal to its present limits by the annexa- 
tion of Algarve, the most southern province, which he had conquered 
from the Moors. Portugal took the lead in maritime discovery, as 
we shall presently see. 



E UR OPE AN NA TIONS. 1 79 

4. Kingdom of Spain. — End of the Moorish power. — The Inquisition. 

— The marriage of King Ferdinand V. of Aragon with Queen 
Isabella of Castile, in 1479, united Aragon and Castile into one 
kingdom called ^/J-a//?. In 1481 Ferdinand and Isabella began a 
war against the Moorish kingdom of Granada, in the South of 
Spain ; and in [492 their armies took the city of Granada, with its 
famous fortress, the Alhambra, after a siege of ten years ; thus putting 
an end to the Moslem power in Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella 
destroyed the power of the Spanish nobles, and deprived the Cortes, 
or national assembly, of some of its privileges, thus strengthening 
the royal power. Ferdinand and Isabella also established the hor- 
rible court of the Inquisition, which condemned Mohammedans, Jews, 
and all accused of heresy, to various tortures and imprisonments, 
and even to death itself. A cruel measure of Ferdinand and Isabella 
was the banishment of the Jews from Spain; 900,000 of the most 
industrious and enterprising of Spanish subjects being thus driven 
from their homes, inflicting a mortal blow upon the prosperity and 
wealth of the Spanish nation. Spain was extended to its present 
limits by Ferdinand's conquest and annexation of Navarre, on the 
south side of Pyrenees, in 15 12. 

SECTION VI.— SCOTLAND AND THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN 
NATIONS OF EUROPE. 

1. Scotland under the djTiasties of Kenneth, Baliol, Bruce, and Stuart. 

— From the earliest period, the northern part of the island of Britain 
— anciently called Caledonia (now Scotland) — had been occupied by 
two wild Celtic tribes, known as Scots and Fids, whom the Romans 
could not subdue, and who made plundering raids into Britain. 
Christianity was introduced into Scotland in the sixth century by 
St. Columba, an Irishman. Kenneth united the two Scottish tribes 
under one sceptre and founded \ht Kingdom of Scotland, A. D. 843. 
Scotland, like Ireland and England, was ravaged by the Normans; 
and Harald Fairhair^ King of Norway, conquered the Orkney and 
Shetland Isles. Under Macbeth (1039-105 7), a usurper — whose 
cousin and rival, Duncan, was murdered — Scotland was prosperous; 
but Macbeth was defeated and killed in battle with his successor, 
Malcolm III. (105 7-1093), Duncan's son. The Norman Conquest 
of England drove many Anglo-Saxons into Scotland; and Malcolm 
III. married an Anglo-Saxon princess and invaded England, but 
was slain in battle at Alnwick Castle in 1093. At this time Magnus 
II., King of Norway, invaded Scotland and conquered the Orkneys 



I So MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

and the Hebrides Islands. King David I. (ii 24-1 15 3) founded 
Holyrood abbey and made Edinburgh the Scottish capital. William 
the Lion (1165-1214) invaded England, and being taken prisoner, 
was only released by acknowledging himself a vassal of the King of 
England. Alexander III. (i 249-1285)— the last male descendant 
of Kenneth — by his victory over Haco II., King of Norway, put an 
end to the Norwegian ravages on the Scottish coasts, and purchased 
the Hebrides from Haco's son and successor, Magnus IV. ; whose 
son married Alexander's daughter, from which union sprang the 
Maid of Norway, Alexander's grand-daughter and heir to the Scots 
crown, who died on her way from Norway to Scotland. The sev- 
eral competitors for the Scots crown chose Edward I. of England 
as their umpire, and Edward decided in favor of John Baliol, who 
acknowledged the English king as his lord-paramount ; but when 
Baliol renounced his vassalage Edward dethroned him, and after 
the patriotic resistance of the martyr William Wallace and King 
Robert Bruce (1306-13 29), Scotland achieved her independence by 
the glorious victory of Bannockburn in 131 4. King David Bruce 
(13 29-1 3 71) was ten years deprived of his throne by Edward 
Baliol, and eleven years a captive in England after his defeat at Nev- 
il's Cross. Under Robert Bruce the Commons obtained representa- 
tion in the Scots Parliament in 1326. The Scots were divided into 
clans, whose chiefs were absolute despots, virtually independent 
of their king, each clan having its own peculiar laws and customs. 
The Highlanders were a barbarous Celtic race, and the chief of their 
clans were the Campbells and the Macdonalds. The Lowlanders 
were a race much like the English, of Anglo-Saxon and Norman 
descent, and the most powerful of their clans were the Douglasses. 
The royal House of Stuart — under whom civilization advanced in 
Scotland — embraced Robert II. (1371-1390), in whose reign the 
English burned Edinburgh, and Lord James Douglass met victory and 
death in England in the battle of Otterbourne in 1388, so celebrated 
in the ballad of Chevy Chase; Robert III. (1390-1406); the poet and 
reformer James I. (1406-143 7), eighteeen years a captive in England 
and assassinated by aScottish nobleman; James 11.(1437-1460); James 
III. (1460-1488), who acquired the Orkney and Shetland Isles by 
marrying a Danish princess, and who was assassinated after his de- 
feat by his rebellious barons and his son and successor near Bannock- 
burn in 1488; James IV. (1488-15 13), whose marriage with adaugh 
ter of Henry VII. of England gave the Stuarts their title to the Eng- 
lish throne, and whose invasion of England in 15 13 ended with his 



EUROPEAN NATIONS. l8i 

defeat and death at Flodden Field; James V. (1513-1542); the un- 
fortunate Mary (1542-1567) ; and James VI., who became James I. 
of England, and whose descendants were Kings of England and Scot- 
land until 1 714. 

2. Scandinavian Mng'doms. — Waldemar. — Union of Calmar. — House 
of Oldenburg-. — During the piratical voyages of the Normans, the 
three Scandinavian kingdoms arose. Norway was founded by Har- 
ald Fairhair, and Detwiark by Gorm the Old, A. D., 875; and 
Sweden by the Ynglings, A. D. 900. St. Ansgar, " the Apostle of 
the North," introduced Christianity into Scandinavia in the ninth 
century. Kings Harald Bluetooth of Denmark and Olaf Skot- 
konung of Sweden embraced Christianity in the tenth century; 
and Christianity was established in Denmark by Canute the Great 
and in Norway by Olaf the Saint in the eleventh century, and in 
Sweden by Eric the Pious in the twelfth century. The Benedictine 
monks did much for the civilization of the Scandinavians. Under 
Waldemar the Conqueror (i 202-1224), Denmark was for a time a 
powerful and extensive kingdom, holding dominion over the whole 
southern shores of the Baltic. Queen Margaret of Denmark — " the 
Semiramis of the North " — united the three Scandinavian kingdoms 
under one sceptre by the Union of Calmar in 1397. The House of 
Oldenburg ascended the Danish throne in 1448, in the person of 
Christian I., and Sweden became virtually independent under Steno 
Sture I. and Steno Sture II. In 1520 the tyrant Christian II. of 
Denmark subdued Sweden, but the massacre of Stockholm led to 
Sweden's liberation by the valiant Gusta'vus Vasa in 1523. 

3. Hungary's greatness under Stephen the Pious, Louis the Great, 
and Matthias Corvinus. — The Hungarians, or Magyars \jnod' -yors], in 
the Thiess \tice'\ and Danube valleys, under Duke Arpad's descend- 
ants, embraced Christianity late in the tenth century, when Duke 
Geisa employed German missionaries to teach the gospel to his 
savage people. Geisa's son, Stephen the Pious — who founded the 
Kingdom of Hungary (A. D. 1000) — founded Hungary's political 
institutions, conquered Transylvania, repressed the nobles and 
strengthened the royal power, founded monasteries and invited 
Benedictine monks into Hungary, and labored to civilize his barba- 
rous people. Under Geisa II. (1141-1161), Transylvania was settled 
by Flemings and Saxons, who built many towns and converted a 
desert waste into a blooming region. In 1222 the Hungarian nobles, 
or magnates, compelled King Andrew II. to grant the Golaen 
Privilege — Hungary's Magna Charta and the foundation of her free 



l82 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

constitution. Andrew III. — the last of the Arpads — died in 1302; 
whereupon Hungary became an elective kingdom, whose sovereigns 
were thenceforth chosen by the magnates in the Hungarian Diet. 
Louis the Great (1342-1382) — of the royal House of Anjou in Naples 
— raised Hungary to its first period of greatness and prosperity and 
enlarged it by conquest, made Venice tributary, conducted many 
wars in Italy, protected the peasants from the tyranny of the mag- 
nates, improved the administration of justice, established schools to 
educate his people, and became King of Poland in 1370. After his 
death in 1382, Hungary was a prey to civil wars- occasioned by dis- 
putes for the crown, which ended when Sigismund — afterward 
Emperor of Germany — was King of Hungary (1392-1437). Hung- 
ary was saved from the Ottoman Turks by the great victory of the 
Transylvanian prince, John Hunniyades \_hun-nt' -a-deez], at Belgrade 
in 1456. King Matthias Corvi'nus (145 7-1 490) — the son of Hun- 
niyades — raised Hungary to its second period of greatness and pros- 
perity, defended his kingdom against the Ottoman Turks and ex- 
tended it by conquest, established a library and a university at Buda 
\_boo'-dah'], and invited learned men, mechanics, and agriculturists 
into Hungary to advance the civilization of his subjects. His death 
was followed by Hungary's rapid decline, its invasion by the Otto- 
man Turks, and the usurpation of the whole royal power by the 
magnates in the Hungarian Diet. After the defeat and death of 
King Louis II. in battle against the Turks at Mohacz in 1526, 
Hungary fell a prey to Austria and Turkey. 

4. Poland's greatness under Ladislas IV., Casimir the Great, Louis 
the Great, and the Jagellos. — The regions of the Vistula and the Oder 
were early occupied by Slavonic tribes called Poles (Slavonians of 
the Plain), who embraced Christianity about the middle of the tenth 
century, after German missionaries had converted Duke Micislas, a 
descendant of the peasant duke, Piast. The Kingdom of Poland — 
founded by Boleslas I. (A. D. 1000) — became finally independent 
of the German Empire during the reign of the Emperor Frederick 
II. in the first half of the thirteenth century. Poland became a 
powerful kingdom under Ladislas IV. (i 306-1 333), who united 
Great Poland with Little Poland and was crowned in Cracow. His 
son and successor, Casimir III., the Great (1333-13 70) — the last 
of the Piasts — annexed Galicia and Red Russia, founded the univer- 
sity of Cracow, but failed to diminish the power of the nobility and 
to establish a powerful citizen and burgher class, and the peasants 
pined in the most abject serfdom. Casimir's nephew and successor, 



EUROPEAN NATIONS. 183 

Louis the Great of Hungary (1370-1382), was the first elective King 
of Poland, whose sovereigns were thenceforth chosen by the Polish 
nobles, or voiwodes, in the Polish Diet ; and Poland was thereafter 
called a republic. Louis the Great's son-in-law and successor, the 
Grand-Duke Jagello of Lithuania, was Ladislas V. of Poland (1382- 
1434), and was the first of the famous race of the Jagellos, which 
occupied the elective throne of Poland two centuries (1382-1572); 
during which Poland was one of the most extensive and powerful 
monarchies in Europe, stretching from the Baltic to the Euxine or 
Black Sea, along the whole frontier of European civilization, thus 
forming an effectual barrier to Germany and the states of Western 
Europe against barbarian invasion. The most noted of the Jagellos 
were Ladislas VI. (1434-1444), King of Poland and Hungary, who 
was defeated and killed by the Turks at Varna in 1444; Casimir IV. 
(1444-149 2), who subdued the Teutonic Knights, but under whom 
the voiwodes in the Polish Diet usurped the royal power; Sigismund 
I. (1506-1548), a wise and able sovereign, under whom Lithuania 
was finally united with Poland; and Sigismund H. (1548-1572), 
under whom the Dukedom of Prussia became a feudal dependency of 
Poland, and with whom ended the dynasty of the Jagellos and the 
greatness of Poland. 

5. Russia, or Muscovy. — Ruric and Vladimir. — ^The Golden Horde. 
— Tlie Ivans. — About A. D. 875, Ruric, a Scandinavian Varangian 
chieftain, became prince of the Slavonic tribe called Russians be- 
cause Ruric, who founded the Grand-Duchy of Great Russia, 
belonged to the Scandinavian tribe of Russ. Late in the tenth 
century, Ruric's great-grandson, Vladimir the Great, who married a 
daughter of the Greek Emperor, embraced Christianity, as did also 
his subjects; whereupon the Greek Christian Church was established 
in Great Russia, which extended from the Dnieper to the Dwina, 
and whose capital was Kiev. The division of the Russian dominions 
among successive heirs occasioned many desolating wars. Russia 
was conquered by the Moguls, or Tartars, about the middle of the 
thirteenth century; and for two centuries the Great Khan of the 
Golden Horde of Kaptschak exacted a heavy tribute from the 
Russian princes and people. The Russians were finally liberated 
from the oppressive yoke of the Golden Horde by Ivan III., the 
Great, Grand-Duke of Moscow (i 462-1 505), who conquered the 
powerful commercial republic of Novgorod; built the Kremlin, or 
citadel at Moscow: raised Russia, or Muscovy, to a front rank; in- 
vited European artisans to Russia; and tried in various ways to 



1 84 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. 

civilize his people. Ivan IV., the Terrible, Grand-Duke of Moscow 
(1533-1588), styled himself Csar (Ceesar) ; organized the Strelitzes, 
or militia ; conquered the Tartar kingdoms of Kasan and Astracan ; 
extended his empire to the Caucasus ; and during his reign Siberia 
was discovered and its conquest by the Russians begun. Ivan's son 
and successor, Feodor, was the last of the male line of Ruric, and 
after his death Russia was a prey to anarchy and civil war. 

SECTION VII.— MOGUL AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES. 

1. Zingis Khan's Mog-iil or Tartar Empire. — In 1206 Tem'ujin, or 
Zingis Khan, chief of the Moguls, or Tartars, started on his career 
of conquest with 700,000 warriors. Zingis Khan and his successors 
— Octai Khan and Kublai Khan — conquered China, India, Persia, 
Tartary, Siberia, Russia, Poland, Hungary, and the Caliphate of 
Bagdad, the last Caliph and 200,000 Mussulmans being slain; carry- 
ing death and desolation wherever they appeared, burning the cities 
of Bokhara and Samarcand in Tartary, Kiev, Moscow, Cracow, 
and Breslau in Europe, and Aleppo and Damascus in Syria; but 
the vast Mogul Empire — the most extensive the world has ever seen 
— soon fell to pieces. 

2. Rise of the Ottoman or Turkish Empire. — In the meantime, the 
Byzantine, Greek, or Eastern Roman Empire had been gradually 
reduced by the Otto7nan Turks, a fierce Tartar tribe, who had em- 
braced Islam; and who under Othman conquered Asia Minor in 
1299, and under Am'urath I. crossed the Hellespont, or Dardanelles, 
into Europe, conquered Thrace, Macedonia, Albania, Bosnia, 
Servia, and Bulgaria, and established their capital at Adrianople. 
Amurath I. defeated 500,000 Christians at Cassova, in Servia, in 
1390; but was slain in the battle. Christian captives were formed 
into a body of troops cdiWtd /aft' izaries. The Turkish Sultan Baj'azet, 
" the Lightning," whose rapid conquests alarmed Europe, defeated 
a large Christian army under King Sigismund of Hungary in the 
bloody battle of Nicop'olis in 1396. 

3. Tamerlane's Mogul or Tartar Empire. — The warlike Turkish 
Sultan Bajazet himself was defeated and taken prisoner in the great 
battle of Angora, in Asia Minor, in 1402, by the great Mogul con- 
queror, Tamerlane, or Timour the Lame — a remote descendant of 
the great Zingis Khan — who had left Samarcand on his career of 
conquest in 1370; conquering Siberia, Tartary, India, Persia, Syria, 
and Asia Minor ; destroying Bagdad and Damascus ; carrying de- 
struction and ruin along his whole course, and building pyramids 



AGE OF REVIVAL AND MARITIME DISCOVERY. 185 

of human bodies; but Tamerlane's vast empire was soon broken into 
fragments under his successors. 
4. RecoTery of the Ottoman Empire and End of the Greek Empire. — 

The Ottoman, or Turkish Empire soon recovered from the blow 
which Tamerlane had inflicted upon it, and under Sultan Amurath 
II., the Turks defeated a Christian army under King Ladislas of 
Poland and Hungary in the bloody battle of Varna in 1444, Ladislas 
himself being slain; and on May 29, 1453, Sultan Mohammed II., 
with an army of 400,000 Turks, took Constantinople by storm, after 
a siege of fifty-three days ; the last Greek Etnperor, Constantino 
Paleologus, being slain while gallantly defending his capital. Thus 
ended the Eastern Empire of the Romans; the last remnants of 
Roman and Greek civilization in the East were extinguished ; the 
Greek Christian church of St. Sophia became a Mohammedan 
mosque ; the Crescent supplanted the Cross in the city of Constan- 
tine, and a Moslem barbarian monarch occupied the throne of the 
first Christian Roman Emperor. In the mountains of Epirus, Alex- 
ander Castriota (Scanderbeg) successfully resisted the Turks; while 
Sultan Mohammed II. was defeated at Belgrade by the Hungarians 
under John Huniyades in 1456, but he conquered Greece in 1460. 
Sultan Se'lim I. conquered Egypt and Syria in 15 17. Under Sultan 
Sol'yman the Magnificent (1520-1566) the Turkish Empire attained 
the zenith of its power and glory, stretching from Hungary to Persia, 
and including the greater part of Northern Africa. 



CHAPTER V. 
AGE OF REVIVAL AND MARITIME DISCOVERY. 

SECTION I.— PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 

1. Invention of the art of printing. — Many useful inventions during 
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries aided vastly in the return of 
European civilization at the close of the fifteenth century. The 
most important of these inventions was that of the art of printing, 
about the year 1440 A. D., by Laurence Koster, of Haarlem, in 
Holland, and John Gutenberg, of Mayence \7nenfz\, in Germany, 
and Gutenberg's assistants, Faust \Joust\ and Schoeffer \jhef' -fer\. 
The result of this useful invention was a great increase in the number 
of books, which now, for the first time, were attainable by all classes. 
Printing was introduced into England by William Caxton, in 1476. 



1 86 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

2. Inrention of gunpowder and the mariner's oompass. — The inven- 
tion of gunpowder by the German monk, Berthold Schwarz, pre- 
pared the way for the downfall of Chivalry, by the substitution of 
fire-arms for the old weapons of warfare. The invention of the 
mariner' s compass by the Italian, Flavio Gioja \_fld-ve-o jo'-e-d\, 
gave a fresh impulse to navigation ; and very soon the gallant Por- 
tuguese navigators ventured out farther and farther from the coast 
than had been hitherto attempted by any mariner. 

3. Revival of learning. — In the fifteenth century the long night 
of barbarism which had hung over Europe since the fall of the 
Western Roman Empire was rapidly passing away. The invention 
of the art of printing, and the flight of learned Greeks, with their 
valuable manuscripts, to Western Europe, upon the capture of Con- 
stantinople by the Turks, led to a revival of learning and the arts 
and sciences during the latter part of the fifteenth century ; and the 
Greek and Hebrew languages now began to be studied in the great 
universities of Europe. Among those most instrumental in intro- 
ducing the study of Greek were the two great scholars, John Reuch- 
lin \roik-lin']fi of Pforzheim, in Germany, and Desiderius Erasmus, 
of Rotterdam, in Holland — both of whom flourished early in the 
sixteenth century. 

4. Decay of Feudalism and Chivalry. — The decay of the Feudal 
System about the close of the fifteenth century was followed by a 
change in the condition of the European states. During the Mid- 
dle Ages, the great barons, or nobles, in every country of Europe, 
possessed the chief power ; but about the close of the mediaeval 
period the royal power became supreme in all the countries of 
Europe, and much of the freedom which the cities and towns in 
Spain, Italy, France, Germany, and England had enjoyed, was 
taken from them. Absolute monarchy was established in England 
by Henry VII., the first of the Tudor kings; in France by the 
crafty and cruel Louis XL; in Austria by Maximilian I.; and in 
Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella. Chivalry had also decayed ; and 
the knights, who at first had defended the weak and the oppressed, 
became highway robbers, especially in Germany, where they plun- 
dered and waylaid inoffensive peasants and merchants. 

SECTION II.— THE SEA-PASSAGE TO INDIA. 

1. Prince Henry of Portugal and Portuguese maritime discoveries. 

— The Portuguese under Prince Henry — son of King John the Great 



AGE OF REVIVAL AND MARITIME DISCOVERY. 187 

(i 385-1 433) — took the lead in maritime discovery. This enlight- 
ened prince established an observatory near Cape St. Vincent, and 
gathered around him eminent astronomers and navigators from all 
quarters, and discussed with them his favorite project of finding 
a sea-passage to India by sailing around Africa. Under Prince 
Henry's patronage, the bold Portuguese navigators discovered and 
explored the western coast of Africa as far south as Cape de Verde ; 
while the Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape de Verde Islands were 
discovered and taken possession of by the Portuguese. 

2. Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz. — 

Under the patronage of King John II. (1481-1495), the Portuguese 
crossed the equator for the first time, and the coast of Guinea was 
discovered and settled by the enterprising Portuguese. In i486 
Bartholomew Diaz \de'-at}i\, a daring Portuguese navigator, discov- 
ered the Southern point of Africa, which was named the Cape of 
Good Hope, because there was now good hope of finding a sea- 
passage to India. 

3. Vasco da Gama's royage to India and foanding of Calicut. — In 

1497 — during the reign of King Manuel the Great (1495-1521) — 
Vasco da Gama, another bold Portuguese navigator, sailed round the 
Cape of Good Hope to India; thus discovering the sea-passage to 
the East Indies — a discovery which revolutionized the world's com- 
merce, by diverting the trade of the East from the Venetians to the 
Portuguese. Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut, where was planted a 
Portuguese colony — the first European settlement in the East Indies. 
In 1500 Cabral, another Portuguese navigator, discovered Brazil, 
which was occupied and settled by the Portuguese. 

SECTION III.— DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

1. Cliristoplier Columbus. — Among others who were attracted to 
Lisbon was Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor. Columbus 
believed the earth to be round, and that India could be reached 
sooner by sailing westward than by making the long voyage around 
Africa. He vainly endeavored to procure aid, first from his native 
city, Genoa, and afterward from the Kings of Portugal and England ; 
but he finally obtained assistance from that noble-hearted queen, 
Isabella of Castile, who fitted out several vessels for him, and ap- 
pointed him admiral and viceroy of all the lands he might discover. 

2. The grreat discovery of Columbus. — On August 3, 1492, Christo- 
pher Columbus, with three Spanish vessels, left the harbor of Pa'los, 



,88 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

in Southwestern Spain ; and after a voyage of seventy days, he dis- 
covered, October 12, 1492, Guanahani, or Cat Island, which he 
named San Salvador (Holy Saviour), and of which he took posses- 
sion in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella — the joint sovereigns of 
Spain. Columbus found the inhabitants of a copper color and of 
savage manners; and, supposing he had only discovered the coast 
of India, he called the people Indians — a name ever since very in- 
appropriately applied to the aborigines of the Western Continent. 
When Columbus returned to Spain he was treated with great honors 
by the ruling sovereigns. 

3. The other voyages of Columbus. — His death. — Columbus made 
three other voyages across the stormy Atlantic. In 1493, he dis- 
covered the large and important island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, 
and founded the town of St. Domingo — the first European settle- 
ment in the New World. Several other large islands were dis- 
covered, and Columbus named the whole group the West Indies. 
On his third voyage, in 1498, Columbus discovered the great con- 
tinent of South America, at the mouth of the great river Orinoco. 
On his fourth and last voyage — during which he discovered Central 
America (A. D. 1501) — his enemies caused him to be sent back to 
Spain in irons. He died at Val'ladolid, in Spain, in 1506. His 
remains were afterwards conveyed to Havana, in Cuba, where, it is 
said, they still remain. 

4. Amerig'o Yespucci. — The new continent named in liis honor. — Co- 
lumbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent, but 
thought that he had only reached the Eastern shores of Asia. This 
secret was revealed to Amerigo Vespucci \_a-mer-e^ -go vesrpoot' -che\ 
a Florentine navigator, who explored the Eastern coast of South 
America in 1498, and published a glowing description of that vast 
continent. In his honor, the new world was named America. 

5. Sebastian Cabot's voyages, discoveries, and explorations. — In 

1496, John Cabot — a native of Venice, but at that time a merchant 
of Bristol, in England — obtained the aid of King Henry VII. of 
England in fitting out an expedition for the discovery of a North- 
west passage to India. The next year (1497), the expedition — com- 
manded by John Cabot's son, Sebastian — sailed westward and dis- 
covered the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland. Thus Sebastian 
Cabot was the first discoverer of the continent of North America. 
In 1498, Sebastian Cabot again sailed westward, and explored the 
greater part of the Atlantic coast of the present United States. In 



AGE OF REVIVAL AND MARITIME DISCOVERY. 189 

1517, he made a third voyage to the polar seas; and in 1526 — 
while in the service of Spain — he discovered the great river Rio de 
la Plata, in South America. 

6. Tlie aborig'ines of America. — The aborigines, or first inhabitants, 
of the American" continent when discovered by Europeans were a 
race of copper-colored savages, whom Columbus called Indians. 
The Indian is often spoken of as the Red Man, in contradistinction 
from the European, or White Man. The Indians were divided into 
a number of nations with distinct languages, and subdivided into 
numerous tribes with various dialects. These nations and tribes 
were very much alike in color, size, moral character, religion, and 
government. Their rulers were called sachems, and their military 
leaders were called chiefs. They engaged in war, hunting, and 
fishing. War parties would often seek renown in mortal combat. 
Their weapons were bows and arrows, tomahawks, or hatchets of 
stone, and scalping-knives of bone. They tortured their prisoners 
and scalped their enemies. Their women were called squaws, their 
rude huts migwams. They believed in a Great Good Spirit and a 
Great Evil Spirit. Sachems in council, in making peace, smoked 
the calumet, or pipe of peace. The Indians of Mexico and Peru 
were highly civilized. From ruins and mounds found in various 
parts of the present United States, it is believed that the Indians dis- 
placed a highly-civilized ancient race. 



PART THIED. 

MODERN HISTORY 



CHAPTER I. 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



SECTION I.— FRENCH WARS IN ITALY AND RISE OF THE 
EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM ( 1494-15 16). 

1. Europe at the beg-inning' of the sixteenth century. — At the begin- 
ning of the sixteenth century, Spain, under Ferdinand and Isabella, 
was the most powerful monarchy in Europe ; while France, under 
Louis XII., the first of the Orleans branch of the Valois dynasty, 
was also a powerful monarchy; and England, under Henry VII., 
the first of the Tudor dynasty, had also risen into importance; but 
the Empire existed only in theory, the Emperor Maximilian I. 
being a powerful prince only as the head of the House of Hapsburg, 
and Archduke of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, etc. In Italy, the 
republics of Venice, Genoa, and Florence were preeminent; while 
the Duchy of Milan and the kingdom of Naples and Sicily were 
contested between the French and the Spaniards. Scotland and the 
Scandinavian kingdoms occupied a secondary place ; Poland was a 
half-barbarous kingdom on the Eastern frontiers of European civili- 
zation; Hungary was a bulwark against the Ottoman Turks, whose 
continuous progress, under warlike Sultans, alarmed all Christen- 
dom ; and Russia ranked more as an Asiatic power than a European 
one. 

2. Wars of Charles Tm. and Louis XII. of France in Italy. — 

Charles VIII. of France (i 483-1 498) invaded Italy in 1494 and 
conquered Naples, but all Italy arose against the French king, who 
only secured his safe retreat to France by his victory at Fornovo in 

(190) 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 191 

1495. His successor, Louis XII. (1498-1515), invaded Italy and 
by a victory over the Milanese at Novara in 1500 effected the con- 
quest of Milan, after which he also conquered Naples; but his ally, ' 
Ferdinand of Spain, seized the fortresses of Naples by treachery, and 
the French were defeated at Garigliano and driven from Naples in 
1504 by the Spaniards under Gonsalvo de Cordova, the ''Great 
Captain." 

3. League of Cambray against Venice. — Holy League against Louis 

XII. — The celebrated League of Cambray in 1508 united Louis XII. 
of France, Ferdinand of Spain, the Emperor Maximilian I., and the 
warlike Pope Julius II. against the republic of Venice. The French 
defeated the Venetians at Agnadella in 1509; but the league soon 
fell to pieces, and Pope Julius II. united with the Venetians, the 
Swiss, and Ferdinand of Spain in a Holy League against the King 
of France. The French victory at Revenna in 15 12 — where the 
great French commander, Gaston de Foix '[deh-fwaw'\ " the Thun- 
derbolt of Italy," was killed — did not prevent the expulsion of the 
French from Italy. 

4. English victories over the French and Scots. — French conquest of 
Milan. — In the meantime the Emperor Maximilian I. and the young 
King of England, Henry VIII. (1509-1547) — the son and successor 
of Henry VII. — ^joined the Holy League against Louis XII. of 
France. Henry VIII. invaded France and put the French cavalry 
to flight in the "Battle of the Spurs," taking the celebrated French 
knight, the Chevalier Bayard \by'-an{\, prisoner (September 10, 
15 13) ; while on the same day the French king's ally, King James 
IV. of Scotland, was defeated and killed by the English in the 
battle of Flodden Field, in the northeastern corner of England. 
The chivalrous Francis I. of France (15 15-1547) — the cousin and 
successor of Louis XII. — immediately invaded Italy, and by his 
great victory over the Milanese and Swiss at Marignano, " the Battle 
oftheGiants " (October 13, 1515), effected the conquest of Milan. 
The Peace of Brussels in 15 16 closed the wars arising from the 
League of Cambray and the Holy League. 

5. Eise of the European States -System, or the " Balance of Power." 

— Out of these French wars in Italy, and alliances and counter- 
alliances growing therefrom, arose the Eu7'opean States-System, or the 
system of the balance of power, by which the different European 
states acted upon each other as weights in a balance, and no one 
state was permitted to aggrandize itself so as to become dangerous to 



192 



MODERN HIS TOR V. 



the security and independence of the others. In these wars stand- 
ing armies had also taken the place of the old feudal levies. 

SECTION II.— WARS OF THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. WITH 
FRANCIS I. OF FRANCE. (1520-1544) 

1. The Emperor Charles V. and his possessions. — On the death of 
the Emperor Maximilian I., "the last knight," in 1519, King 
Charles I. of Spain was elected Emperor of Germany with the title 
of Charles V. Charles was the grandson of Maximilian and his 
wife, Mary of Burgundy, and also of Ferdinand and Isabella of 
Spain. While yet a youth Charles was lord of the Netherlands, 
which he inherited from his father Philip, son of Mary of Burgundy. 
On the death of his maternal grandfather, Ferdinand of Spain, in 
15 16, he obtained the crown of Spain, with Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, 
and the Spanish possessions in America. On the death of his pater- 
nal grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I., in 1519, Charles 
succeeded to the hereditary Austrian territories, and to the imperial 
throne. Charles soon bestowed the hereditary Austrian estates on 
his brother Ferdinand, who added the kingdom of Bohemia, and a 
large part of Hungary to the possessions of the House of Hapsburg, 
in 1526. The Emperor Charles V. was the most powerful monarch 
that Christendom had seen since the days of Charlemagne, and his 
dominions were far more extensive than those of Alexander the 
Great or of the Emperor Augustus. 

2. Francis I. of France. — The chivalrous Francis I., King of 
France (1515-1547) — '* the Restorer of Letters and the Arts" — had 
also been a candidate for the imperial throne, and on the election 
of Charles V. became his rival and enemy. Four wars arose between 
the two monarchs, caused by the claims of each to the possession 
of Milan, Navarre, and Burgundy. 

3. Henry YIU. of England. — Charles V. and Francis I. each 
wished to secure the favor of the vain and capricious Henry VIII. , 
King of England (1509-1547), who had also been a candidate for 
the imperial throne. Charles visited Henry in England, and Fran- 
cis met him at Calais at the splendid festival known as The Fiela 
of the Cloih of Gold. The Emperor, however, won the English 
king's favor by flattering his celebrated Prime Minister, Cardinal 
Wolsey. 

4. First war between Charles Y. and Francis I. — Chevalier Bayard. 
— In 1520 the first war between Charles V. and Francis I. broke 
out ; the King of England and Pope Leo X. being allied with the 



S/A' TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 193 

Emperor of Germany; while the Swiss, the Genoese, and the Vene- 
tians were the alUes of the King of France. In 1520 a German and 
Spanish army invaded Italy, and by the battle of Bicocca, wrested 
Milan from the French, which caused Pope Leo X. to die of joy. 
In 1523 another French army sent to recover Milan was driven 
from Italy; and the Chevalier Bayard, '■^ the knight tvithout fear and 
without reproach'' who commanded the French rear, was killed 
during the retreat. The French army was pursued across the Alps 
by the German and Spanish army commanded by the Constable de 
Bourbon, a powerful French nobleman, who had joined the enemies 
of France, in revenge for the injuries he had received from the 
wicked Louise of Savoy, the French king's mother, who, in revenge 
for his condemnation of her vices, had obtained a decree from the 
parliament of Paris for the seizure of his estates. After an unsuc- 
cessful siege of Marseilles \_mar-sails'\ Bourbon retreated from 
France; and the plot between Charles V., Henry VIII., and Bour- 
bon, for a partition of France an>ong them, failed; although the 
English king had advanced within thirty-three miles of Paris. 

5. Battle of Pavia ami captivity of Francis I. — Peace of Madrid. — 

King Francis I. himself led an army into Italy in 1524 to attempt 
the recovery of Milan, and laid siege to Pa'via; but was defeated' 
and taken prisoner in the bloody battle of Pavia, in February, _ 
1525, by the German and Spanish armies under the Constable de 
Bourbon. Francis conveyed the intelligence of the sad event to 
his mother in a few words: "Madame, all is lost, but honor."" 
The captive Francis was conveyed a prisoner to Madrid, where he 
remained in captivity nearly a year. In 1526 the Peace of Madrid 
closed the first war between Francis I. and Charles V.; the French 
king recovering his liberty upon condition of renouncing his claims 
to Milan and Burgundy, and delivering up his two sons as hostages 
for the fulfillment of the treaty. 

6. Second war between Charles V. and Francis I. — Pillag'e of Rome. 
— Peace of Cambray. — No sooner had Francis I. returned to his . 
kingdom than he renounced his treaty with Charles V.; and the 
Holy League was formed against the Emperor of Germany by the 
Kings of France and England, the Italian princes, and the Pope. 
In 1527 the German and Spanish armies, under the Constable de 
Bourbon, marched into Italy, and took Rome after a furious assault 
in which Bourbon was killed. The city was frightfully pillaged by 
the victors; 8,000 Romans were massacred the first day; and Pope 
Clement VII. was besieged in his castle of St. Angelo, and forced to 



194 



MODERN ins TO K V. 



surrender. Francis invaded Italy in 1528, and retook and destroyed 
Pavia; but by the Ladies' Peace of Cam bray in 1529 — so called 
because it was negotiated by the French king's mother and the Em- 
peror's aunt — Francis retained Burgundy, but renounced his claims 
to Milan and paid a ransom for the release of his sons, who were 
still held by the Emperor as hostages. 

7. Alariiiing' progress of Sultan S(>lynian the Maaniiflceut. — Tunis 
taken by Charles V. — In the meantime Cln-istian Europe was greatly 
alarmed at the progress of the mighty Turkish Sultan, Solyman the 
Magnificent — who had invaded Hungary and taken Belgrade in 
1521; wrested the island of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John 
in 1522 and compelled the Knights to retire to Malta; completed 
the conquest of Egypt and almost subdued Persia ; again invaded 
Hungary with 300,000 men, defeated and killed King Louis II. of 
Hungary in the battle of Mohacz in 1526, seized Buda and massa- 
cred its garrison ; and invaded Austria and be.sieged Vienna in 1529, 
but was soon driven back. After the death of Louis II. the crown 
of Hungary was disputed between Ferdinand I. of Austria, the 
brother of the Emperor Charles V., and John Zapolya, a Hungarian 
magnate, whose claims were supported by the Turkish Sultan, who 
invaded Hungary a third time in 1532, but soon retired. After the 
death of Zapolya, several years later, Solyman seized Buda, which 
was held by the Turks for 146 years. In 1535 the Emperor Charles 
V. led an expedition of 30,000 men into Africa, attacked and cap- 
tured Tunis, and comi^elled the piratical Mohammedan prince, 
Heyraddin Barbarossa, the ally of S iltan Solyman, to cease his 
piracies and release the 22,000 Christian captives whom the Moors 
had reduced to slavery. 

8. Third war between Charles V. and Francis I. — Trnce of Nice. — 

In 1536 Francis I. of France began a third war against the Emperor 
Charles v., invaded Italy, and formed an alliance with Sultan Soly- 
man the Magnificent, who continued his invasions of Hungary, and 
whose fleets swept the Mediterranean, carrying off captives from the 
shores of Italy and selling them as slaves, even at Marseilles. The 
Emperor drove the French from Italy, invaded France, and besieged 
Marseilles ; but was obliged to retreat, as the French laid waste the 
country. In 153S, the ten years' Truce of Nice \_nees\ closed the 
war. In 1541, the Emperor Charles V. led a second expedition to 
Africa, to punish the Mohammedan pirates of Algiers; but the ex- 
pedition was a total failure, the Emperor's fleet being destroyed, 
and he was obliged to return home. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. ip^ 

9. Fourth Tvar between Charles Y. and Francis I. — Peace of Crepy. 

— In 1542, Francis I. of France, in alliance with the Sultan of Tur- 
key, began a fourth war against Charles V., who had secured the 
alliance of Henry VIII. of England. The allied French and Turk- 
ish fleets vainly bombarded the castle of Nice, but the French won 
a brilliant victory at Cerisoles, in Northern Italy. The disgraceful 
union of the Cross and the Crescent disgusted all Christendom. In 
1544, the Emperor Charles V. invaded France on the east and 
rapidly advanced toward Paris ; while Henry VIII, also invaded 
France, and captured Boulogne [boo-lone'^; but the same year the 
Peace of Crepy closed the war, the rival monarchs agreeing to 
restore all their conquests, and to unite in the suppression of the 
Reformation. In 1547, both Francis I. of France and Henry VIII. 
of England passed to their graves. 

SECTION III.— THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. AND THE REFORMA- 
TION. (1517-1558). 

1. Corniption of the Church and previous efforts at reform. — For 

several centuries the Chair of St. Peter had been occupied by Popes 
whose vices and crimes were a reproach to Christendom ; and men 
doubted whether such creatures were God's agents upon earth. The 
pious and eloquent St. Bernard — although a staunch adherent of the 
Church — had as early as the twelfth century condemned the vices of 
the Popes and the clergy. Monks and nuns disgraced themselves 
by their shameful vices. All attempts at reformation were sternly 
suppressed by the Popes, backed by the whole power of the Church. 
We have noticed the extinction of the unfortunate creed of the 
Albigenses in blood ; the bold denial of the papal assumptions by 
Wycliffe and Huss, the martyrdom of Huss, and the suppression of 
their attempts at reformation ; and the bold denunciation of the 
wickedness of Popes and clergy by the pious Florentine, Savonaro'la, 
and his consequent martyrdom. After the Councils of Constance 
and Basle, the Church continued to grow more and more corrupt. 
Seventy great crimes had been proven against Pope John XXIII. 
Alexander VI. (1492-1503), the worst of the Popes, poisoned poli- 
tical opponents and cardinals to obtain their wealth, and his death 
was caused by accidentally drinking poisoned wine which he had 
intended for another. Julius II. (1503-15 13), the warlike Pope, 
swore at God for giving the French the victory ; and his military 
ambition and desire to extend his dominions ill accorded with his 
spiritual office. Pope Leo X. (15 13-15 21) — John de Medici, the 



1 9 6 MODERN HIS TORY. 

accomplished but dissolute son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, the 
illustrious ruler of Florence — disgraced his station by his vices and 
his skepticism ; although he was a great patron of literature and the 
arts. 

2. Pope Leo X. and ludulg-ciices. — Beg'iuning of tlie Reformation l)y 
Martin Lntlier. — In order to defray the expenses of building the great 
cathedral of St. Peter's at Rome, Pope Leo X. offered for sale 
indulgences, or licenses to sin, by which past and future sins might 
be pardoned ; and appointed the Dominican monk, John Tetzel, a 
man of infamous and immoral character, to sell these indulgences in 
Germany. Tetzel's overbearing conduct aroused great indignation 
in Germany; and in 15 17, Dr. Martin Luther, an Augustinian 
monk — then professor of theology in the university of Wittenberg, 
on the Elbe, in Saxony, and who was born at Eisleben, in Saxony, 
November 10, 1483 — nailed to his church-door his 7iinety-five 
theses, boldly denymg the Pope's right to sell indulgences, and de- 
claring that remission of sins is from God alone. This was the 
beginning of the great Reformation, which rapidly spread and which 
ended in the withdrawal of the Teutonic nations from the Church 
of Rome. Luther was summoned to appear at Rome to answer the 
charge of heresy, but his friend and patron, the Elector of Saxony, 
forbade his gomg. 

3. Luther and the Diet of Worms. — In 1520, Pope Leo X. con- 
demned Luther's writings to be burned, and threatened the great 
Reformer with excommunication unless he recanted within sixty 
days; and on December nth of the same year (1520), Luther 
publicly burned the papal bull of condemnation and the volumes of 
the canon-law of the Romish Church in the public square of 
Wittenberg. The Pope punished Luther and his adherents by 
solemnly excommunicating them from the Church, but Luthe' 
replied by excommunicating the Pope. In 15 21, Luther appeared 
before the Diet of Worms, at the command of the Emperor Charles 
v., who provided the Reformer with a safe-conduct. Luther's 
friends, fearing for his safety, had advised him not to go to Worms ; 
but the daring Reformer replied : "I will go to Worms if there be 
as many devils there as tiles on the roofs of the houses." Luther 
made an eloquent defense before the Diet, and when ordered to 
recant, he refused unless convinced from Scripture that he was 
wrong and concluded thus : " Here I stand ; I cannot do otherwise; 
God help me — Amen !" Some of the Pope's adherents advised the 
Emperor to violate his solemn promise and mete out to Luther the 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



197 



fate of Huss ; but Charles, true to his word, allowed Luther to 
depart, saying : " No, I will not blush like Sigismund at Con- 
stance." Luther and his adherents were then put under the ban of 
the Empire, but the bold Reformer was protected by his patron, the 
Elector of Saxony, who confined him for safety in the Wartburg 
castle, during which Luther prepared a German translation of the 
Bible and married Catharine of Bora, formerly a nun. 

4. Tlie rebellious Geriiiau peasants aud the Anabaptists. — Luther 
earnestly opposed many fanatical reformers, and also the rebellious 
German peasants, who were soon subdued by the German princes, 
after many castles had been destroyed, and 100,000 peasants put to 
death. The fanatical sect of the Anabaptists was finally subdued by 
the German princes, aided by the military forces of the Empire ; 
and the Anabaptists, after several decades, underwent a thorough re- 
formation under the leadership of Menno Simon, in which condition 
under the name of Mennoiiites they have continued to the present 
day, and have been distinguished for their industry, frugality, sim- 
plicity of dress and manners, and for their aversion to oaths, to 
military service, and to the use of law. 

5. The Protestation and the Aug-sburg' Confession. — The League of 
Schnialkald. — Li the Diet of Spire, in 1529, the Catholic princes of 
Germany resolved that the progress of the Reformation should be 
checked ; whereupon the princes who favored the Reformation pro- 
tested, and were called Protestants — a name ever since applied to all 
Christians not connected with the Greek and Roman Catholic 
Churches. In the Diet of Augsburg, in 1530, the learned and 
peaceable Reformer, Philip Melanchthon, presented the articles of 
faith of the Reformers, known as the Augsburg Cojifession. The 
Emperor Charles V. now endeavored to suppress the Reformation 
by force of arms, and threatened to put the Protestants under the 
ban of the Empire ; but the Protestant princes concluded the League 
of Schnialkald, which was joined by the Kings of England, France, 
Denmark, and Sweden. The great Turkish invasions obliged the 
Emperor to conclude the Peace of Nuremburg with the league in 
1531, and hostilities were suspended for sixteen years. A religious 
war broke out in Switzerland in 1531 ; the Catholics were victorious ; 
and Ulric Zwingle, the noble-hearted Swiss Reformer, was killed in 
the battle of Kappel. Zwingle's doctrines were afterwards promul- 
gated by John Calvin, the Reformer of Geneva. 

6. War of Relig-ion in Germany.— Peace of Passau. — Peace of Augs- 
bnrg". — Li the meantime the Reformation had made rapid progress 



1 pS MODERN HISTOR Y. 

in Germany, and by the time of Luther's death (February iS, 1546) 
the entire North of Germany had become Protestant. In 1545 a 
Council of the Church, summoned by the Emperor, assembled at 
Trent, in the Tyrol, to endeavor to restore the unity of the Church. 
After the death of his great rival, Francis I., the Emperor Charles 
V. determined to suppress the Reformation in Germany by force of 
arms; and in 1547 a religious war broke out between Charles V. 
and his Protestant German subjects. The Elector John Frederick 
of Saxony was defeated and made a prisoner by the Emperor in the 
battle of Miihlberg ; the Landgrave Philip of Hesse was also made 
a prisoner by treachery ; and the perfidy of Duke Maurice of Saxony, 
who deserted the Protestant cause and went over to the Emperor, 
caused the overthrow of the Protestants. \\\ 1552 the perfidious 
Maurice abandoned the Emperor and returned to his former Pro- 
testant friends, formed an alliance with King Henry H. of France, 
the son and successor of Francis L, and suddenly proclaimed war 
against the Emperor, who narrowly escaped being made a prisoner 
at Innspruck, in the Tyrol, while the Council of Trent was broken 
up in confusion. By the Peace of Fassau the same year (1552), 
the German Protestants secured religious toleration, and the Elector 
John Frederick of Saxony and the Landgrave Philip of Hesse were 
released from captivity. As Albert of Brandenburg continued the 
war, Maurice marched against him, and met victory and death in 
the battle of Sievershausen in 1553. ^\\t Religious Peace of Augs- 
burg, in 1555, gave the Protestants of Germany full religious liberty, 
and equal civil and political rights with the Catholics. This was 
the first victory of the Reformation. Henry IL of France — the 
ally of the German Protestants — had meanwhile seized the strong 
fortresses of Toul, Verdun, and Metz ; and after the Peace of Passau 
the Emperor made a fruitless effort to retake Metz, that fortress 
being gallantly defended by the French under Francis of Lorraine, 
Duke of Guise [<ir<^<'s], and it remained with France until 1870. 

7. Albdicatiou, retii-emeut, and death of Charles V. — The failure of 
the efforts of Charles V. to restore the unity of the Church made 
the Emperor lose all interest in the affairs of the world ; and in 
1556, to the astonishment of the whole world, he abdicated all his 
thrones, and retired to the monastery of St. Just, in the West of 
Spain. He bestowed Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spanish 
America upon his son, Philip II. ; and the Austrian territories upon 
his brother Ferdinand, who was chosen by the German Electors to 
succeed him on the imperial throne of Germany, with the title of 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



199 



Ferdinand I. Thenceforth the House of Hapsburg remained divided 
into a Spanish and an Austrian branch. Charles spent the remain- 
ing two years of his life in religious devotion and mechanical inven- 
tions. Having failed in repeated attempts to make two watches 
run exactly alike, he is said to have exclaimed: "Alas! I cannot 
make two watches run alike, and yet, fool that I was, I thought of 
governing so many nations, with different languages and religions, 
and living in different climes!" Two days before his death he 
went through the ceremony of his burial. He died in 1558. 

8. Tlie Catholic Clmrch and the Society of Jesus. — The Reformation 
was checked in Italy and Spain, partly by the character of the 
people, and partly by the severity of the Inquisition. The Italian 
relatives, Soci'nus, denied Christ's divinity, and the Spaniard 
Serve'tus denied the Trinity. Popes Adrian IV. (1522-15 23), 
Paul III. (1534-1549), Paul IV. (iS55-i559)> and Pius IV. (1559- 
1565) made strenuous efforts to exterminate what they considered 
heresy; but the twice-interrupted Council of Trent (1547-1563) 
closed its long session without effecting the desired result, although 
the Catholic Church was somewhat purified of its corruptions. 
Among the noted Popes of this period were Gregory XIII. (1572- 
1585), the author of the Nezu Style of the calendar, and Sixtus 
V. (1585-1591), who firmly maintained the discipline of the 
Church. A powerful support of the Popes was the celebrated Society 
of Jesus, a powerful Roman Catholic order founded by a pious Span- 
ish soldier named Igna'tius Loyo'la, about the year 1540. Having 
been wounded in battle, Loyola turned his thoughts to the Church 
and took upon himself the three monastic vows of poverty, celi- 
bacy, and obedience, and solemnly vowed to do the bidding of the 
Pope. The object of this society — which became widespread in 
Europe, and whose members were called Jesuits — was the arrest of 
Protestant doctrines by furnishing education gratuitously to the 
young, by instructing them in the Catholic faith; and the order 
established numerous schools and colleges for this purpose in every 
Catholic country of Europe. The Jesuits established missions 
among the savages of America and Africa, and even in the crowded 
cities of China and Japan, for the propagation of the Christian faith; 
the most noted of their foreign missions being in Paraguay, in South 
America. The most illustrious of these Jesuit missionaries was the 
celebrated St. Francis Xav'ier, who made hundreds of thousands of 
converts to Christianity in distant lands. The General of the Order 
residing at Rome knew each member's qualifications and work. 



200 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

9. Sweden's liberation and tlie Reforniatiton in Scandinaria, — In 

1520 the tyrant Christian II. of Denmark — " the Nero of the North" 
— subdued Sweden and caused the massacre of ninety- four Swedish 
nobles at Stockhohii. The Swedes revolted, and led by the heroic 
Gusta'vus Vasa, the son of one of these massacred nobles, regained 
their independence in 1523. In gratitude, Gustavus Vasa was 
chosen King of Sweden by the Swedish Diet, thus founding a dynasty 
which ruled Sweden for three centuries (15 23-1 8 18). Under 
Gustavus Vasa (15 23-1560) the Lutheran religion was established 
in Sweden. After the tyrant Christian II. had been dethroned and 
imprisoned in Denmark, the Lutheran religion was also adopted in 
Denmark and Norway. Denmark finally acknowledged Sweden's 
independence by the Peace of Stettin in 1570, which closed the 
Northern Seven Years' War. 

10. Rise of Calvinism. — As we have seen, Lutheran ism was estab- 
lished in the North of Germany and in the Scandinavian kingdoms. 
The followers of Zwingle in Western Germany and in Switzerland 
organized the German Reformed Church, whose creed is based on 
the Heidelberg Catechism. John Calvin, or Chauvin {sho-van^'\ — 
the French Reformer — fled from persecution in France, to Geneva, 
in Switzerland; where he established a sort of theocracy, and en- 
deavored to bring Christianity to its primitive simplicity in cere- 
monies and worship, excluding images, ornaments, organs, candles, 
and crucifixes from the churches, and allowing no church feast but 
a rigorously-observed Sabbath, to be spent in prayer, preaching, and 
singing of Psalms, which Calvin had translated into French. Calvin 
taught the creed of the great Christian Father, St. Augustine, that 
man is incapable of himself to do good and partake of salvation, and 
that the future destiny of every human creature is preordained from 
time of birth. Although Calvin had fled from persecution himself 
and had severely denounced religious intolerance on the part of the 
Catholics, he was very intolerant himself and became a violent per- 
secutor, causing Servetus to be burned at the stake for denying the 
doctrine of the Trinity and Christ's divinity. Calvinism was gen- 
erally rejected by the higher orders, because it opposed many prev- 
alent amusements, such as the theatre, dancing, and the more 
refined pleasures of society. Like the ancient lawgivers, Calvin ex- 
ercised unbounded influence at Geneva, in civil and religious affairs, 
and in education and manners, until his death in 1564. 

11. Calvinism in Fi-ance, Scotland, and Holland. — Calvinism spread 
rapidly from Geneva into the South of France, into Scotland, and 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 201 

into the Northern Netherlands. In France the Calvinists were 
called Huguenots. In Scotland they were called Presbyterians, be- 
cause the affairs of their church were managed by Elders, or Pres- 
byters, elected by the congregations. The apostle of Calvinism in 
Scotland was the celebrated John Knox, who succeeded in establish- 
ing that faith as the state-religion of Scotland. In the Northern 
Netherland provinces Calvinism soon obtained a foothold, and 
became the state-religion of the new Dutch Republic (Holland) ; 
and in 1618 the views of the Arminians, who did not fully accept 
Calvin's doctrine of predestination, were condemned as heretical by 
the Synod of Dort, which upheld St. Augustine's doctrine of man's 
inability of himself to do good and be saved, and punished the 
Arminian leaders by death or imprisonment. 

SECTION IV.— HENRY VIII. (1509-1547) AND THE CHURCH 
OF ENGLAND. 

1. Hem-y Vm. and Cardinal Wolsey. — Henry VIII. (1509-1547) 
— the son and successor of Henry VII., the first of the Tudors — was 
only eighteen when he ascended the throne of England. He united 
in his person the rival claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster. 
Thomas Wolsey — who, though the son of a butcher, by his abilities 
and learning, obtained the king's favor, and became successively a 
Romish Cardinal, Archbishop of York, and Chancellor to the king 
— for a time acted a more conspicuous part in public affairs than the 
king, and his inordinate ambition led him to aspire to the Papacy. 
In 15 21, King Henry VIII. wrote a Latin volume against Luther 
and the Reformation, and Pope Leo X. conferred upon the royal 
author the title of ^^ Defender of the Faith " — a title still borne by 
the English sovereigns. 

2. Henry's quarrel with the Pope and the English Reformation. — 
Several years later Henry VIII. quarreled with Pope Clement VII., 
because the Pope refused to sanction the king's divorce from his first 
wife, Catharine of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella 
of Spain, that he might marry the beautiful Anne Boleyn, one of the 
ladies of his court ; and Cardinal Wolsey, who was supposed to 
oppose the king's divorce, lost the king's favor, was dismissed from 
all his offices and arrested for high treason, and died of grief and 
anxiety at Leicester while on his way to London (November 29, 
1530). On his death-bed he exclaimed : "Had I served my God 
as diligently as I served my king, he would not have given me over 
in my gray hairs ! ' ' The young priest, Thomas Cranmer, who had 



202 MODERN HISTORY. 

become Archbishop of Canterbury, called a court which pronounced 
the king's marriage with Catharine of Aragon illegal, because she 
had been the king's brother's widow. The Pope having pronounced 
Cranmer's action illegal, the English Parliament confirmed the 
king's divorce from Catharine and his marriage with Anne Boleyn, 
and by the Act of Supremacy, passed in 1534, transferred the supre- 
macy of the Church in England from the Pope of Rome to the King 
of England. Thus Henry VIII. became Head of the English 
Church, and the English Rcfonnation was completed by the dissolu- 
tion of the monasteries and nunneries and the bestowal of their pos- 
sessions on the king. The Pope having excommunicated Henry and 
his adherents, the king retaliated by causing those in England who 
had been chiefly instrumental in procuring the excommunication- 
sentence to be seized and beheaded for treason. Wolsey's successor 
as Chancellor, Sir Thomas More, author of Utopia, and one of the 
most learned and virtuous of men, was beheaded for refusing to sub- 
scribe to the Act of Supremacy ; and Bishop Fisher of Rochester 
was also beheaded for the same cause. Henry caused Roman 
Catholics to be burned alive for denying his supremacy, and Luther- 
ans as heretics. The Bible was translated into English by Arch- 
bishop Cranmer, and also by William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale. 

3. Henry YIII. and his wives. — Henry VIII. caused his second 
wife, Anne Boleyn, to be beheaded on false charges in 1536. His 
third wife, Jane Seymour, died a year later. He soon divorced his 
fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, a German princess, and caused his 
Chancellor, Sir Thomas Cromwell, to be beheaded for arranging the 
marriage. Henry's fifth wife, Catharine Howard, was also beheaded. 
His sixth wife, Catharine Parr, a zealous Lutheran, outlived him \ 
but once narrowly escaped his vengeance for expressing her opinions 
too freely in a theological discussion with the king. In his last 
years, Henry VIII. became an intolerable despot; and just before his 
death, in 1547, he caused the poet, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, 
a zealous Roman Catholic, to be beheaded on a false charge of high- 
treason. Under Henry VIII., serfdom was abolished in England. 

4. Edward TI. — Duke of Somerset. — Establishment of the Church of 
England. — As Edward VI. (1547-1553) — the son of Henry VIII. 
and his third wife, Jane Seymour — was only nine years old when he 
became King of England, the Duke of Somerset governed as Pro- 
tector ; and the Church of England, Protestant Episcopal in form, 
was fully established, and the Book of Common Prayer and the 
Thirty-Nine Articles were prepared by Archbisho]) Cranmer. The 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR V. 203 

Duke of Somerset, the young king's Protector, was arrested, tried, 
and beheaded for high- treason, at the instigation of the wicked 
Dudley, Earl of Northumberland. 

5. Qiieeu Mary. — Restoration of Catholicism. — Persecutions and mar- 
tyrdoms. — Just before the death of Edward VI. in 1553, at the early 
age of fifteen, the wicked Earl of Northumberland caused the young 
king to leave his crown by will to Northumberland's daughter-in- 
law, Lady Jane Greyj but the English people recognized the claims 
of Edward's half-sister, Mary, daughter of Henry VIII. with his first 
wife, Catharine of Aragon, who was accordingly proclaimed Queen; 
and the Earl of Northumberland was beheaded for high-treason, and 
Lady Jane Grey and her husband, Lord Guilford Dudley, were be- 
headed afterward in consequence of an insurrection in their behalf, 
each being only seventeen years old. Upon her accession, Mary, 
who was a bigoted Roman Catholic, and whose advisers were Cardi- 
nal Pole and Gardner, set about restoring the Roman Catholic re- 
ligion and bringing England again under the Pope's supremacy; and 
to strengthen the Catholic cause she married Philip of Spain, son 
of the Emperor Charles V. Durmg Mary's short reign of five years 
(1553-1558), nearly 300 Protestants were burned alive at Smithfield, 
in London. Among the martyrs were Archbishop Cranmer and 
Bishops Ridley, Latimer, and Hooper. Queen Mary joined her 
husband. King Philip II. of Spain, in a war with France; and grief 
at the loss of Calais by the English in this war hastened Mary's 
death in 155S. 

SECTION v.— PHILIP II. OF SPAIN (1556-1598) AND RISE OF THE 
DUTCH REPUBLIC. 

1. War between Philip 11. of Spain and Henry n. of France. — Peace 
of Cateau-Cambresis. — After the abdication of Charles V. the war 
continued between his son, Philip 11. of Spain, and Henry II. of 
France. Philip induced his wife. Queen Mary of England, to unite 
with him in the war, and the English and Spanish forces defeated 
the French in the battle of St. Quentin, in Northern France, in 
1557; but the French under Francis of Lorraine, Duke of Guise, 
wrested Calais from the English in 1558. The Fea^e of Cateau- 
Cambresis \sa-to' kong-breet' -se'\ in 1559, between Spain, France, 
England, and Scotland, divided Europe into two great religious 
parties; Philip II. of Spain being considered the champion of 
Roman Catholicism, while Queen Elizabeth of England was re- 
garded as the head of the Protestant interests. 



204 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



2. Wars with the Turks. — Victory of Christendom at Lepanto. — 

Sultan Solyman the Magnificent failed in a desperate attempt to 
wrest the island of Malta from the Knights of St. John in 1565, and 
died while besieging Sigeth, in Hungary, in 1566. Under his suc- 
cessor, Selim II., the Turks wrested the island of Cyprus from the 
Venetians, and all Europe became alarmed. A Holy League was 
formed against the Turks by Pope Pius V., King Philp II. of Spain, 
and the Republic of Venice; and in the great .sea-fight of Lepanto, 
in 1571, the Spanish and Venetian fleets, under Don John of Aus- 
tria, the half-brother of King Philip II. of Spain, gained a victory 
for Christendom which electrified all Europe, the Turks losing 224 
ships and 30,000 men. 

3. Philip II. of Spain. — The Iiiquisitioji. — Spain and Portugal. — 
Tlie Moors. — The bigoted, tyrannical, and cruel King Philip II. of 
Spain firmly established the horrible Inquisition in his dominions. 
His own son, Don Carlos, died in its dungeons ; and his half- 
brother, Don John of Austria — the victor of Lepanto — died of grief 
at the treatment which he had received from Philip. Philip II. was 
a gloomy, misanthropic prince, who, shutting himself up in the 
Escurial, planned the extermination of Protestantism and the estab- 
lishment of a powerful Roman Catholic empire in Western Europe 
under the supremacy of Spain. Philip was successful in completely 
suppressing the Reformation and free thought in Spain. Although 
the treasures of Spanish America flowed into his coffers, Philip died 
a bankrupt; and his forty-two years' reign (1556-1598) was the 
grave of Spain's greatness. That proud monarchy, which under 
Philip's father had held the balance of power in Christendom and 
had been the leading Christian power, rapidly declined under 
Philip's successors. In 1578 King Sebastian of Portugal was de- 
feated and killed in an expedition against the Moors in Africa ; and 
in 1580 Philip II. united Portugal with Spain, and this union lasted 
sixty years; but in 1640 Spanish tyranny produced a revolt of the 
Portuguese, who reestablished their independence under the Duke 
of Braganza, who became King John IV. The Moors, or Moris- 
coes, in Spain, had been cruelly persecuted by Charles V., during 
whose reign they revolted, but were soon subdued. Philip II. un- 
dertook a crusade against them in 1568, and after a bloody war of 
three years they were forced to submit and accept Christian bap- 
tism, and commanded to renounce their national dress. Continued 
persecution led to a conspiracy ag.tinst Spanish power during the 
reign of Philip II. 's son and succe.sor, Philip III. (1598-1621); 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR V. 205 

whereupon all the Moors — 600,000 in number — were banished from 
Spain in 1609, thus inflicting a mortal blow upon Spain's prosperity. 

4. Pliilip n. of Spain and tlie Netherlands. — The Netherlands, with 
their flourishing manufacturing and commercial towns — Ghent, 
Bruges, Antwerp, Brussels, and others — were the most prosperous 
of the dominions of King Philip II. of Spain. The bigoted Philip 
appointed his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, regent of the Nether- 
lands ; interfered with their chartered rights and privileges — such 
as taxation by their own Estates; and introduced the horrible 
Inquisition into the Netherlands for the extirpation of Protestantism, 
at the same time making the laws agamst heresy so severe that read- 
ing the Bible or praying in one's house was punishable with death. 
Philip's order of "death to heretics" caused thousands of Nether- 
landers to flee from the country. When the Netherland nobles, 
under William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, demanded a retraction 
of the severe laws against heresy, the regent, Margaret of Parma, 
became alarmed ; but her councillors branded the petitioners as a 
"pack of beggars." The name was adopted by the nobles at a 
banquet, with shouts of "Long live the Beggars! " Riotous mobs 
in Brussels, Antwerp, and other Netherland towns, demolished the 
cathedrals, destroying the images of the Virgin and the saints. 
Philip II., on hearing of this, tore his beard in rage, and sent the 
cruel Duke of Alva to crush the revolt, and the regent Margaret 
resigned. Alva governed the Netherlands for six years (1567-1573); 
and the "Bloody Council," which he established at Brussels, sen- 
tenced all "heretics" to death, and so well was the sentence exe- 
cuted, that, according to Alva's own boast, 18,000 persons were 
put to death. Counts Egmont and Horn, Catholic nobles, were 
also beheaded at Brussels, because they opposed his tyranny. Many 
Netherlanders fled from the country ; while others, as privateers, or 
"Sea-Beggars," preyed upon Spanish commerce and became a 
terror to Spanish seamen. 

5. William of Orange and the rise of the Dutch Republic. — Alva's 
successors — Requesens (1573-1576), Don John (1576-1578), and 
Alexander of Parma (1578-1592) — were better men, but were una- 
ble to restore Spanish power in the Netherlands. In 1572 the four 
provinces of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht, declared 
Prince William of Orange their Stadtholder; Calvinism was adopted 
as the state-religion, and a Protestant university was erected at Ley- 
den [^/y'-dcn']. Haarlem was captured by the Spaniards in 1572, 
but Alkmaar and Leyden made successful defences; and in 1574 



2o6 MODERN HISTORY. 

Leyden was saved by opening the dykes, thus flooding the Spanish 
trenches and bringing a fleet to the rehef of the brave garrison. 
The atrocities of the Spanish troops in Antwerp caused all the 
Netherland provinces to unite in the Pacification of Ghent, in 1576; 
and the seven Northern, or Protestant, provinces were united more 
closely by the Union of Utrecht, in 1579, through the efforts of 
Prince William of Orange, who was assassinated in 1584 by a hired 
agent of the King of Spain, and was succeeded as Stadtholder by 
his son. Prince Maurice of Orange. Philip II. had long off'ered a 
large reward and a title of nobility to any one who should murder 
the Prince of Orange, and many attempts had been made upon the 
the Prince's life. The Netherlanders deeply mourned their dead 
leader, and little children cried in the streets. The capture of Ant- 
werp by the Spaniards in 1585 caused Queen Elizabeth of England 
to send 6,000 men under the Earl of Leicester to aid the Nether- 
landers; and Sir Philip Sidney, " the Flower of Chivalry," lost his 
life on the field of Zutphen in 1586. England and France became 
the active allies of the Dutch Republic in 1596; Cadiz was taken 
and plundered by the allied fleets; and many Spanish treasure-ships 
became the prizes of the "Sea-Beggars;" but the Peace of Vcrvins 
[var-vanf^ was concluded between England, France and Spain in 
1598. 

6. Holland's independence, g-overnment, maritime power, commerce, 
and colonies. — By a truce concluded in 1609 the Dutch Republic 
(Holland) virtually secured its independence, which was formally 
acknowledged by Spain in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648; but 
the Southern, or Catholic, provinces (Belgium) remained with Spain 
a century longer, after which they passed to Austria (1714). The 
legislative i)ower of the Dutch Republic was vested in a States- 
Genera/, and the executive power in a Stadtholder and his Council. 
Holland was already a great maritime power ; her navy ruled the 
seas and controlled the world's commerce; and Dutch colonies 
were planted in America and Africa, and in the East and West 
Indies — prominent among which were Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, 
in South America, founded in 1580; the Spice Islands, wrested 
from the Portuguese in 1607; the Gold Coast of Guinea, in Western 
Africa, wrested from the Portuguese in 1611; Batavia, in the island 
of Java, founded in 1619; New Netherlands, in North America, 
founded in 1623; the Cape of Good Hope, in Southern Africa, 
colonized in 1650; and the island of Ceylon, wrested from the Por- 
tuguese in 1656. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 207 

SECTION VI.— WARS OF RELIGION IN FRANCE (1562-1598). 

1. Persecutions of the Huguenots by Francis I. and Henry II. — 
Francis II. and the Guises. — Francis I. (15 15-1547) and his son and 
successor, Henry II. (1547-1559), cruelly persecuted the Hugue- 
nots, or French Protestants — followers of John Calvin, the Reformer 
of Geneva — burning thousands of them alive. After Henry II. 's 
death — in consequence of a wound received at a tournament in 
honor of his son's marriage with Mary, Queen of Scots — his sickly 
son and successor, Francis II. (1559-1560), the husband of the 
young Queen Mary of Scotland, came to the throne. The power- 
ful Catholic family of the Guises \^gee^-es\ obtained the ascendency 
in France and Scotland, and endeavored to crush the Protestant 
religion in both kingdoms. A Huguenot plot to overthrow the 
power of the Guises resulted in the execution of 1,200 persons; and 
the Huguenot leaders, the Prince of Conde \ko}i-da\ and Admiral 
Coligni \ko-leen'-ye\, were imprisoned, when the sudden death of 
the young king brought about a change. 

2. Cliarles IX. — Catharine de Medicis. — The first civil and relig-ious 
wars. — Under the youthful Charles IX. (1560-15 74) — the brother 
and successor of Francis II. — the government was conducted by 
the queen-mother, Catharine de Medicis \deh med' -e-se\ as regent. 
During the first years of the regency the Protestant leaders gained 
the ascendency at court; and the Guises retired into Lorraine; 
while their niece, Mary Stuart, the widow of Francis II., retired 
into her own native kingdom of Scotland in 1561. In 1562 Cath- 
arine de Medicis granted an edict of toleration to the Huguenots, 
allowing them freedom of worship outside the walls of towns. This 
offended the Guises, and the followers of Francis of Lorraine, Duke 
of Guise, murdered a number of Huguenots engaged in prayer, in a 
barn, near the town of Vassy. This was the signal for a furious 
religious war, in which the most shocking cruelties were perpetrated 
by both parties. The Duke of Guise, who commanded the Catho- 
lics, was assassinated by a Protestant, while besieging Orleans; and 
in 1564 the Peace of Amboise \ong-bwau/-sa\ was made, by which 
the Huguenots received toleration for their religion. The promises 
of toleration to the Huguenots were soon broken, and in 1567 the 
religious war was renewed with all its horrors. The Catholics gained 
several victories, but their leader, the Constable de Montmorenci 
\_deh mdng-mo-rong-se'\ was slain in battle; and the Prince of 
Conde, the famous Protestant leader, was assassinated by a Cath- 
olic. In 1568 the Peace of St. Germain \_safig-zher-}nen''\ w^s 



2o8 MODERN HISTOR V. 

concluded, by which the Huguenots were again promised religious 
toleration. 

3. Massacre of St. Bartholoinew. — For the purpose of reconciling 
the two great religious parties in France, King Charles IX. now 
proposed that his sister Margaret should marry Henry of Navarre, 
the Protestant leader. The French Catholics, headed by the Guises 
and the queen-mother, Catharine de Medicis, had secretly planned 
to massacre all the Huguenots who should come to Paris for the 
celebration of the nuptials. Accordingly, at a given signal, at two 
o'clock in the morning of St. Bartholomew's day, August 24, 1572, 
bands of armed assassins rushed upon the defenseless and unsuspect- 
ing Huguenots, and slaughtered them without mercy. The massacre 
continued three days; and about 5,000 Protestants were killed in 
Paris alone, among whom was the venerable Admiral Coligni. The 
youthful king himself shot at the victims from the windows of 
his palace. Altogether, about 50,000 Protestants were massacred 
throughout France by the king's orders. The French court was 
congratulated by King Philip 11. of Spain; and Pope Gregory 
Xni. offered thanks to Heaven for "this signal mercy." This 
horrible atrocity is known as T/ie Massacre of St. Bartholoinew. 
The result was that many Catholics became Protestants, from a 
feeling of horror and shame ; and the civil and religious war again 
burst forth with all its fury. King Charles IX. was so stricken with 
remorse that his health rapidly declined ; and he died in 1574, and 
was succeeded by his brother, Henry III., who then resigned the 
throne of Poland, to which he had been chosen by the Polish Diet 
in 1572. 

4. Henry m. and tlie Wars of tlie Leag'ue in France. — After the 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew, France continued to be distracted by 
bloody civil wars between the Catholics and Protestants. King 
Henry III., upon his accession in 1574, made peace with the 
Huguenots by granting religious toleration, which so exasperated 
the Guises that they formed the Cailwlic League, to defend the 
Catholic religion in France. King Henry III. then sided with the 
Catholics, but he soon quarrelled with the Guises, two of whom he 
caused to be assasinated, after which he went over to the Huguenots. 
The king was obliged to leave Paris, which espoused the Catholic 
side, but he soon returned and laid siege to the city, which was 
only saved from destruction by the assassination of King Henry III. 
by James Clement, a Dominican monk, August, 1589. Henry III. 
was the last of the Valois dynasty. 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR V. 



209 



5. Heiiry IT., tlie first of the Bom-boas, and the Edict of Nantes. — 

The House of Bourbon now ascended the French throne, in the 
person of King Henry of Navarre, who assumed the title of Henry 
IV. The new king broke the power of the Catholic League in the 
battles of Arques lark} (1589) and Ivry (1590), and then laid siege 
to Paris, which was almost reduced by starvation, when it was 
relieved by a Spanish army from the Netherlands. Henry IV. 
relinquished the siege of Paris, but continued the war against the 
Catholic League until 1593, when he embraced Roman Catholicism, 
in order to bring peace to his distracted kingdom. The civil wars 
now closed, and the Parisians hailed Henry IV. with joy. In 1598 
Henry IV. issued an edict at Nantes \_nanfs'], securing for the 
Huguenots religious toleration and equal civil and political rights 
with the Catholics. Under the wise rule of Henry IV. and his 
Prime Minister, the Duke of Sully, France prospered ; but Henry's 
plan for a Christian Union among European nations was frustrated 
when the good king was assassinated in 1610, in his carriage, in the 
streets of Paris, by a fanatical Jesuit named Ravaillac \_rav-a/-yai'}, 
and was mourned by all France. Among all the Kings of France 
there is none whose name is so cherished to this day as Henry IV. 

SECTION VII.— ENGLAND UNDER QUEEN ELIZABETH (1558-1603). 

1. (^iieen Elizabeth and the restoration of the Ang-lican Churcli. — On 

the death of the bigoted Catholic Queen Mary, in 1558, the crown 
of England fell to her half-sister, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry 
VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth refused all offers of marriage 
from Philip II. of Spain and others, declaring that she was wedded, 
only to her realm. As the Catholics, both in and out of England,, 
looked upon the young and fascinating Mary, Queen of Scots, as the 
rightful Queen of England, Elizabeth strengthened herself by re- 
storing the Anglican Church, which had been overthrown by her 
Catholic predecessor, and by aiding John Knox and the other 
Scotch Reformers in establishing Calvinism as the state-religion of 
Scotland. The Ac^ of Supremacy passed by Parliament required all 
clergymen and all holding ofifices under the crown to acknowledge 
the Queen's supremacy in Church and State. The Act of Uniform- 
ity forbade any person attending the ministry of a clergyman who 
was not of the Established Church. Under these acts, which were 
rigorously enforced, many Catholics perished. 

2. Elizabeth's position and character. — Queen Elizabeth was re-- 
garded as the head of the Protestant party throughout Europe;. 

14 



2 1 o MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

while Philip II. of Spain was considered the champion of Roman 
Catholicism. Elizabeth aided the Protestants in France and the 
Netherlands during the wars of religion. England was very pros- 
perous during Elizabeth's reign of forty-five years (1558-1603), and 
never had that kingdom a sovereign who swayed the sceptre with 
more ability than did this mighty queen. 

3. Rise of the Puritans. — As the Anglican Church retained many 
of the practices and usages of the Romish Church, many English 
Protestants — adherents of the Calvinistic faith — held aloof from the 
Established Church and organized under their Presbyters and 
Synods. They were called Dissenters and Noneonformists, because 
they dissented from, and refused to conform to, the doctrines and 
practices of the Established Church ; and because they expressed 
their desire for a purer form of worship, and condemned all frivo- 
lous amusements as sinful, they were called in derision, Piiritatis. 
For refusing to comply with the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity, 
many were fined and imprisoned during Elizabeth's reign. 

4. Mary, Queen of Scots. — Mary, Queen of Scots, next heir to the 
English throne, had adopted the arms and title of Queen of England, 
with the approval of the Pope, who publicly denied Elizabeth's 
claims as queen and her mother's as wife. At an early age Mary 
had been sent to France and married to the Dauphin, afterwards 
King Francis II. of France. Mary's husband died in 1560, but she 
remained in France over a year longer. Finally the clamors of 
her Scotch subjects induced her to return to Scotland, where she 
found the Catholic religion overthrown, and Calvinism erected in 
its stead. Mary was a rigid Roman Catholic ; and in 1565 she 
married Henry Stuarl, Lord Darnley, who was also a strict Catholic. 
This was very distasteful to John Knox and the other Scotch Re- 
formers. As Mary was soon neglected by her fickle husband, she 
bestowed her favor on her private secretary, David Rizzio \_reet'- 
che-o\ an Italian singer. This offended Darnley to such a degree 
that he formed a plot with some of the Scotch nobles ; and the con- 
spirators murdered Rizzio in the queen's presence (1566). Mary 
now burned with hatred against her husband, but she paid him a 
visit when he was taken sick. One night after this visit (February 
16, 1567) the people of Edinburgh were awakened by a terrible ex- 
plosion. Darnley's house had been blown up with gunpowder, and 
his lifeless body was found at a distance. The Scotch people 
accused the Earl of Bothwell of the horrible murder ; and as Queen 
Mary married him three months later, she was suspected of com- 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y. 211 

plicity in the crime. Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothwell 
produced a rebellion of the Scotch people against her. Bothwell 
fled from Scotland, and lived by piracy until he was thrown into 
prison in Denmark, where he became insane, and so remained the 
last ten years of his life. Queen Mary was now seized and impris- 
oned in a lonely castle in the island of Lochlevin, by her rebellious 
subjects, who compelled her to resign her crown to her infant son, 
James VI.; while her half-brother, the Earl of Murray, was appointed 
regent of the Scotch kingdom during the minority of her son. In 
1568 Mary escaped from prison and raised an army to recover her 
lost authority, but was defeated by the Earl of Murray in a battle at 
Langside, whereupon she fled into England, where she was seized 
and imprisoned by order of Queen Elizabeth. 

5. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. — The retention of Mary, 
Queen of Scots, in England endangered the safety of Queen Eliza- 
beth's throne and life; and plots for the assassination or dethrone- 
ment of Elizabeth, and the elevation of Mary to the English throne, 
were undertaken by the English Roman Catholics ; but the ring- 
leaders were tried, convicted, and executed. In 1586 a formidable 
conspiracy against Elizabeth was discovered, in which the Queen 
of Scots was charged with being an accomplice, and she was accord- 
ingly tried and found guilty. Queen Elizabeth signed the death- 
warrant, and the unfortunate Mary was beheaded at Fotheringay 
Castle, February 7, 1587, after having been kept a prisoner in Eng- 
land nineteen years. She died with firmness. 

6. The Spanish Armada.— The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, 
aroused the indignation of the Roman Catholics throughout Europe. 
The Pope outlawed Elizabeth ; and Philip II. of Spain fitted out a 
gigantic fleet, consisting of 150 vessels, and named The Invincible 
Armada, for the subjugation of England, France, and the Nether- 
lands at one blow. Queen Elizabeth made great preparations for 
defense. She called out an army of 40,000 men, and placed it 
under the command of the Earl of Leicester, her favorite general ; 
while the English fleets were placed under the command of Lord 
Howard of Effingham, and under him served Sir Francis Drake, Sir 
John Hawkins, and Martin Frobisher — then the most renowned 
seamen in Europe. The Invincible Armada, under the command 
of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, sailed from Lisbon for the English 
Channel in May, 1588. The English fleet had just got out of port 
when it beheld the Armada approach in the form of a crescent, ex- 
tending a distance of seven miles. The English sent a number of 



2 1 2 MODERN HIS TOR V. 

fire-ships into the midst of the Armada, destroying many vessels and 
disabling the whole fleet. The Spanish admiral then resolved to 
return home ; and as the wind blew from the south, he was obliged 
to sail northward, along the eastern shores of England, around Scot- 
land, and down along the western coast of Ireland; but most of the 
Spanish vessels which escaped the destructive effects of the English 
fire-ships, were wrecked off the coasts of Scotland by a succession 
of the most furious storms, and very few of them returned to the 
shores of Spain. The destruction of the Invincible Armada was 
important in its moral consequences ; as it virtually secured the 
independence of Holland, inspired the Huguenots in France with 
hope, and raised the courage of the Protestants throughout Europe, 
From this time Spain rapidly declined in power and national great- 
ness, and her naval superiority was broken ; while England took hei 
place as a great maritime power. 

7. Eli/abetli's fiivorites.— Irish rebellion of 1598.— Fate of the Earl 
of Essex. — Queen Elizabeth was never married. Her favorites were 
the Earl of Leicester, Sir Walter Raleigh, and the Earl of Essex. 
Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was her Prime Minister during the first forty 
years of her reign. Sir Francis Walsingham was her Secretary of 
State. Sir Francis Drake was the first Englishman who circumnavi- 
gated the globe, while Martin Frobisher explored the Polar regions. 
English commerce became extensive ; a trade was opened with 
Russia through the newly-founded port of Archangel, on the White 
Sea, while the English East India Company was chartered on the 
last day of the year i6oo. Elizabeth's efforts to firmly establish the 
religious laws of England in Ireland produced a Roman Catholic 
rebellion in Ireland headed by Hugh O'Neal, Earl of Tyrone (1598). 
Elizabeth appointed her last favorite, the Earl of Essex, Lord Lieu- 
tenant of Ireland ; but recalled him when he made a disadvanta- 
geous treaty with the Irish leader; whereupon the Earl of Essex 
attempted to dethrone the queen, who then caused him to be 
arrested, tried, and beheaded for treason (1601). Elizabeth's grief 
for the death of her favorite caused her to bewail herself with tears 
during the last years of her life. With her death in 1603 ended the 
Tudor dynasty, which had worn the English crown for 118 years 
(1485-1603). The English have ever since revered the memory 
of " Good Queen Bess." This period — the most brilliant in Eng- 
lish literature — was adorned by the names of Sir Philip Sidney; the 
poet-laureate, Spenser ; the great dramatist, Shakspeare ; and Lord 
Bacon. 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR V. 



213 



SECTION VIII.— DISCOVERIES, COLONIAL EMPIRES, AND ASIATIC 

POWERS. 

1. Spanish discoveries in America in the Sixteenth Century. — Several 
Spanish adventurers made discoveries in America, early in the six- 
teenth century. In 15 12 Juan Ponce de Leon \_whawn pot^ -tha da- 
ia-on''] discovered Florida. In 1513 Vasco Nunes de Balboa [z/a/- 
ko nil' -neth-da-hal-bo' -a\ crossed the Isthmus of Panama and dis- 
covered the Pacific Ocean, or South Sea. In 15 19 Ferdinand 
Magellan \jna-jel'-lan\ — a Portuguese navigator in the service of 
Spain — discovered the straits which bear his name, in the southern 
part of South America, and the Philippine Islands, where he was 
killed in 152 1, his vessels making the first circumnavigation of the 
globe. In 1 5 41 Ferdinand de Soto discovered the Mississippi river. 

2. Fi-ench discoveries in America in the Sixteenth Century. — At the 
same time French adventurers were also making discoveries in North 
America. In 1524 John Verrazzani \yer-rat-sah' -ne\ — a Florentine 
navigator in the service of France — discovered the Atlantic coast 
of the present United States; and in 1534 Jacques Cartier [s/;a/^ 
kar-ie-a!^ discovered the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence, and 
named the St. Lawrence valley New France. 

3. Conquest of Mexico and Peru by the Spaniards under Cortez and 
Pizarro. — Mexico — the seat of the rich and flourishing empire of the 
Aztecs, a highly civilized American Indian race — was discovered 
by the Spaniard Cordova in 15 17; and conquered by a few Spanish 
troops under the bold adventurer, Fernando Cortez, in 15 21 — the 
Aztecs being greatly frightened at the Spanish cannon — and the 
Aztec emperor, Montezuma, was put to a merciless death by his 
conquerors. The wealthy and civilized empire of Peru— inhabited 
by another numerous and highly-advanced race of American In- 
dians, whose monarchs were called Incas — was discovered in 1529 
and conquered in 1532 by Francisco Pizar'ro, another Spanish 
adventurer, at the head of three hundred men ; and the reigning 
Inca was treacherously put to a cruel death by the inhuman Pizarro. 
During the remainder of the sixteenth century the greater part of 
South America came under Spanish rule; and Spanish settlements 
were made in every part of South America, in Mexico, Florida, and 
in the West Indies, as well as in the Philippine Islands. The 
American Indians were cruelly oppressed by the Spaniards, being 
compelled to work as slaves in the mines. The worthy priest. Las 
Casas, devoted his life to their welfare and amelioration. 



214 



MODERN HIST OR Y. 



4. Albuquerque and the Poiiiigruese empire in Asia and Africa. — 

Early in the sixteenth century the Portuguese empire in Asia was 
greatly extended by the conquests of Almeida \al-ma-e' -da\ and 
Albuquerque \al-boo-kah' -ka\. The gallant Albuquerque conquered 
two great cities — Goa, in India (1507), and Ormuz, in Persia (15 10); 
and made the former the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire 
in the East. The illustrious i\lbuquerque finally died of grief at 
the unworthy treatment which he had received from his master — 
King Manuel the Great of Portugal. The Portuguese also took 
possession of the island of Macao, on the coast of China. The 
Portuguese colonial empire extended along the southern coast of 
Asia, and along the eastern and western coasts of Africa, and in- 
cluded Brazil, in South America. In the East the Portuguese had 
numerous factories. Lisbon, the Portuguese capital, became the 
seat of the world's commerce. 

5. The Modern Persian Empire. — In 1501 Ismail founded a new 
Mohammedan empire in Persia; which, under the great but cruel 
and tyrannical Shah Abbas (1586-1624), became a mighty power 
in Asia; and whose capital, Ispahan, was then the most splendid 
city in Asia. The most famous of Shah Abbas' s successors was the 
cruel tyrant, Khouli Khan, or Nadir Shah (i 736-1 747), after whose 
assassination Persia rapidly declined in power and importance. 

6. Tlie Mosjul Empire in India. — In 1525 Baber, a descendant of 
Tamerlane, founded the Mogul Empire in India; which, under the 
great Humayan (1530-1556), Akbar (i 556-1 605), Jehanghir (1605- 
1627), Shah Jehan (1627-1659), and Aurungzebe (1659-1707), 
was the great Mohammedan power of Southern Asia; and whose 
capital was Delhi, in Northern Hindoostan. After lasting two cen- 
turies the Mogul Empire in India fell before the conquering arms 
of the Mahrattas, the Afghans, and the English. 

SECTION IX.— PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION IN THE SIXTEENTH 

CENTURY. 

1. Result of the Reformation. — The great Reformation resulted in 
the establishment of the Protestant religion among the Germanic 
nations of Europe — England, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, 
and NorThern Germany; while the Roman Catholic faith remained 
fixed among the Latin nations — Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France. 
Southern Germany, Austria, and Poland also remained Roman 
Catholic. Hungary became largely Protestant. Russia adhered 
to the Greek Church. The Slavonic and Greek races in the Turk- 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR V. 2 1 5 

ish dominions also held fast to the Greek Church, but groaned under 
the bigoted despotism of their Mohammedan conquerors. 

2. Science and learning'. — The sixteenth century was remarkable 
for the mighty impulse which civilization received in all European 
countries. Schools were improved, and universities multiplied. 
The works of antiquity were translated into the modern European 
languages. Germany and Italy were the chief seats of learning and 
civilization. The many universities in Germany established through 
the efforts of Philip Melanchthon, the great Reformer, cultivated 
and developed the study of the ancient classical literature. The 
great scholar, Erasmus, of Rotterdam, in Holland, was called to 
England, by Cardinal Wolsey, to teach Greek at Oxford. The 
Reformation awakened a spirit of inquiry, and wonderful discoveries 
were made in the field of science, especially in astronomy; while 
bold navigators were bringing to the knowledge of Europe distant 
lands in America^ Africa, and Asia. 

3. Astronomy. — Copernicus and Tyclio Brake. — Nicholas Coper- 
nicus (1473-1545) — a distinguished German astronomer — demon- 
strated the falsity of the theory of the great astronomer of the second 
century of the Christian era, Ptolemy, of Alexandria, in Egypt, that 
the earth is the centre of the solar system, around which the sun and 
the other planets revolve — a theory which had been accepted for 
fourteen centuries ; but his great work (Z)<? Orbimn Celcstium Revo- 
lutionibus) — in which he maintained that the sun is the centre of the 
solar system, around which the other planets revolve — was not pub- 
lished during his life-time, through fear, and was only published after 
his death by a Roman cardinal. 

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) — a famous Danish astronomer — made 
astronomical observations from the observatory erected by Kmg 
Frederick 11. of Denmark on the island of Huen, for many years. 

4. English Literature of the Age of Queeii Elizabeth. — Edmund 
Spenser (1553-1599) — poet-laureate under Queen Elizabeth — 
wrote the Faerie Queen. 

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) — the immortal English 
dramatist, born and buried at Stratford-upon-Avon — wrote thirty- 
seven dramas, in which he shows the various phases of human, 
nature, and which place him at the head of poets. 

Sir Philip Sidney (155 4-15 86) — a distinguished courtier, sol- 
dier, and author of Arcadia and Defense of Poesie — called by 
Elizabeth "the jewel of her dominions" and also called "the 



2 1 6 MODERN' HIS TOR Y. 

Flower of Chivalry," died the death of a hero on the field of 
Zutphen, in Holland, while fighting for the liberties of the Nether- 
landers. 

Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) — also a renowned courtier, 
soldier, and writer — was imprisoned for twelve years during the 
next reign, during which he wrote his History of the World, and 
was beheaded in 1618. 

5. French Literature. — Rabelais (1483-15 5 3) was a famous satir- 
ist, whose writings are very immoral. 

Montaigne (1533-1592) — a noted skeptic — published observa- 
tions of life in his Essays. 

6. Portuguese aud Spajiish Literature. — Camoens (1524-1579) — 
the only great Portuguese poet — described Portuguese history in his 
great epic poem, the Lusiad. 

Cervantes (1547-16 16) — the celebrated Spanish novelist, author 
of Don Quixote — led an adventurous life, and was once captured 
by pirates. 

7. Italian Literature. — Macchiavelli ( 1 469-1 5 2 7) — a great states- 
man and historian, who flourished at Florence under the Medici — 
wrote Discourses on Titus Livius, The Prince, and the History of 
Florence. 

Ariosto (1474-1533) — a great Italian poet, who flourished at 
Ferrara — wrote Orlando Furioso. 

Tasso (1544-1595) — also a great Italian poet, who flourished at 
Ferrara — wrote Jerusalem Delivered, an epic poem on the First 
Crusade. 

8. Italian Art. — Leonardo da Vinci (1452-15 19) — a great Italian 
painter, sculptor, and architect — flourished at Milan, his great paint- 
ing being The Last Supper. 

Michael Angelo (1475-1564) — the greatest Italian painter, sculp- 
tor, and architect — flourished at Florence under the Medici, and 
superintended the building of St. Peter's cathedral at Rome. 

Raphael (i 483-1520) — an illustrious painter who also flourished 
at Rome under Pope Leo X. — painted Madonnas and sacred pic- 
tures, and decorated the walls of the Vatican at Rome. 

CoRREGGio (1494-1534) was also a distinguished Italian painter. 

Titian (147 7-1 5 7 6) was an eminent Venetian portrait and land- 
scape painter, whose chief works are at Venice and Madrid. 

9. German Art. — Albert Durer (1471-1528) — "the Father of 
German painting" — was a great painter, engraver, and sculptor, 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



217 



whose best paintings are Christian Martyrs in Persia and Adora- 
tion of thi Holy Trinity. 

Lucas Kranach (1472-1553) was likewise a great German 
painter and engraver. 

Hans Holbein (1498-15 43) — also a great German painter — 
spent most of his life in England under the patronage of King 
Henry VIII. 

CHAPTER II. 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

SECTION I.— THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648). 

. Religious persecution in the Austrian states. — The Cleve suc- 
cession. — The Emperor Ferdinand I. (1556-1564) and his son and 
successor, Maximilian II. (1564-1576), respected the rights of the 
Protestants of Germany; but Maximilian's son and successor, the 
incompetent and careless Rudolf II. (15 76-1 61 2) — entirely under 
the influence of the Jesuits, and given to the study of astrology — 
connived at religious persecution in Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia, 
The weak and incompetent Rudolf II. was compelled, by degrees, 
to surrender all the hereditary Austrian territories to his brother 
Matthias, and only retained the meaningless imperial crown. The 
Protestant Union and the Catholic League divided Germany into 
two hostile parties, which broke out into actual war in 1609, con- 
cerning a dispute about the succession to the Cleve duchies. 

2. Thirty Years' War begun by the Pi'otestant revolt in Bohemia. — 

Rudolf's brother and successor, Matthias (1612-1619), alarmed the 
Protestant Bohemians by appointing his brother, Duke Ferdinand 
of Carinthia, a bigoted Catholic, as heir to the crowns of Austria, 
Hungary, and Bohemia; and when two Protestant churches were 
closed in Bohemia in 1618, the Bohemians, led by Count Thurn, 
revolted, and threw the two imperial chancellors out of the window 
of the castle at Prague, thus beginning that great civil and religious 
war which devastated Germany for thirty years (1618-1648). 

3. Subjug^atiou of the Bohemians. — When Matthias died in 1619, 
Ferdinand was chosen Emperor by the German Electors at Frank- 
fort ; but the Bohemians refused to acknowledge him, and chose, as 
King of Bohemia in his stead, the Elector Frederick V. of the Pala- 
tinate, son-in-law of King James I. of England. The weak and 
cowardly Frederick was defeated by the army of the Catholic 



2 1 8 MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

League under Tilly, in the battle of Weissenberg, near Prague, in 
1 619. He then fled in dismay into the Netherlands, and was out- 
lawed and deprived of his hereditary dominions: and Bohemia lay 
prostrate before the power of the Emperor and the Catholic League 
of Germany. The unfortunate Bohemians were cruelly punished 
for their rebellion ; twenty-seven Bohemian nobles were executed; 
the property of the others was confiscated and bestowed on the 
Jesuits and other Catholic orders ; the Protestant clergy were grad- 
ually banished from Bohemia; and finally it was decreed that no 
Protestant would be tolerated, whereupon 30,000 Protestant families 
left Bohemia, and sought refuge in the Protestant states of Saxony, 
Hanover, and Brandenburg. 

4. Denuiark's part in the war. — Protestant defeat. — Peace of Lubec. 

— Li the meantime the Protestants had been defeated on the Rhine ; 
but in 1625 the Protestants of Saxony took up arms in defense of 
their religion, and King Christian IV. of Denmark also took the 
field in the cause of German Protestantism. The Protestants under 
Mansfeld were defeated at Dessau by the imperial army under Wal- 
lenstein, a wealthy Bohemian nobleman, who furnished 50,000 men 
at his own expense on condition of being allowed the unlimited 
command of them ; while Christian IV. of Denmark was defeated 
by the army of the Catholic League under Tilly at Lutter, and 
pursued into his own dominions by Tilly and Wallenstein, and 
compelled to accede to the Peace of Li'ibec, in 1629, by which the 
Danish king recovered his own dominions, on condition of aban- 
doning the cause of the German Protestants. Wallenstein, however, 
failed to take the city of Stralsund, in Pomerania, after a siege of 
ten weeks and a heroic defense by the inhabitants, which cost him 
12,000 men; although he had sworn to "take the city if it were 
bound to heaven with chains." 

5. Edict of Restitution. — The Emperor Ferdinand II. and the 
Catholic League, encouraged by their recent triumph, now resolved 
upon the full suppression of the Protestant religion in Germany ; 
and the Emperor issued an Edict of Restittition, requiring the Pro- 
testants to restore all ecclesiastical property taken from the Catho- 
lics since the Peace of Passau. The loud complaints of the German 
princes — Catholic as well as Protestant — against Wallenstein's fright- 
ful ravages, obliged the Emperor to remove Wallenstein. 

6. King Gustavns Adolpluis of Sweden in Germany. — The unfortu- 
nate Protestants of Germany soon found a deliverer in the valiant 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



219 



Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden — the valiant Gustavus Vasa's 
renowned grandson — who had raised Sweden to a front rank among 
the Northern nations by successful wars with King Christian IV. of 
Denmark, the Czar Michael Romanoff of Russia, and King Sigis- 
mund III. of Poland. Through the intrigues of the able French 
Prime Minister, Cardinal Richelieu, Gustavus Adolphus appeared in 
the North of Germany in June, 1630, with only 16,000 men; and 
manyof the Protestant princes of Germany became his allies. 

7. Magdebui'g-. — Breitenfeld. — Nureiiibur^. — Lutzen and death of 
Gustavus Adolphus. — The Protestant city of Magdeburg was taken 
and burned by Tilly (May 16, 1631), and 30,000 of the inhabitahts 
were brutally massacred after their surrender. Tilly's army was 
defeated by the united Swedish and Saxon armies, under the Swed- 
ish monarch, at the village of Breitenfeld \bri' -ten-felcf\, near Leipsic 
(September 7, 1631). Gustavus Adolphus then marched triumph- 
antly through Northern and Western Germany; and in the spring 
of 1632 Tilly was killed by a cannon-ball, while disputing with the 
Swedish king the passage of the river Lech \Jek\ The Emperor 
Ferdinand II. now recalled Wallenstein to his command. After a 
disastrous blockade of Nuremburg, in which each army lost 30,000 
men, Wallenstein moved toward Dresden, followed by Gustavus 
Adolphus; and in the famous battle of Lutzen (November 16, 1632) 
the valiant Swedish king — "the Lion of the North" — purchased a 
glorious victory at the cost of his life. 

8. Alliance of France and Sweden. — The Emperor Ferdinand II., 
suspecting his great general, Wallenstein, of treason, and fearing to 
arrest him in his tent, caused him to be treacherously assassinated 
in 1634. The Swedes and German Protestant princes had ren-ewed 
their league by the Alliance of Hielborn in 1633; but the disastrous 
defeat of the Swedes in the battle of Nordlingen in 1634 caused the 
Elector of Saxony and other Protestant princes to conclude the 
Peace of Prague with their Emperor in 1635 ; while France, under 
her great statesman. Cardinal Richelieu [^reesh' -hi], formed an alli- 
ance with the Swedish statesman, Oxenstiern \oj(/ -en-steer >{], and 
with the Dutch Republic, against the German Empire and Spain 
(1635). Bernhard of Weimar, who made important conquests 
from the imperialists on the Rhine, entered the service of the 
French, but died in the midst of his victorious career. The French, 
under Conde [kon'-da'] and Turenne \^too-ren''\, triumphed over the 
Spaniards in the Spanish Netherlands and over the imperialists on 
the Rhine; Conde defeating the Spaniards at Rocroy in 1643, and 



2 2 o ^^0 BERN HIS TOR Y. 

the imperialists at Freiburg (1644), Nordlingen (1645), and Lens 
(1648). The Swedes, under the successive commands of Banner, 
Torstenson, and Wrangel, continued victorious in Northern Ger- 
many, Bavaria, Bohemia, and Austria; committing the most 
frightful ravages, and destroying a thousand castles and villages in 
Bohemia alone. Banner defeated the Saxons at Wittstock in 1636. 
Torstenson was victorious over the imperialists at Leipsic in 1643, 
and at Jankowitz, in Bohemia, in 1645 ; and King Christian IV. of 
Denmark having joined Sweden's enemies in 1643, Torstenson in- 
vaded the Danish king's dominions, and forced him to accept the 
Peace of Bromscbro in 1644. The Thirty Years' War ended in 
Prague, where it began. The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, 
without seeing the end of the great civil and religious war in which 
he had been engaged from the beginning of his reign, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Ferdinand III. (1637-165 7). Richelieu died in 
1642, while the war was still in progress. 

9. Peace of Westphalia. — After five years' of negotiation at Miin- 
ster and Osnabriick, the great Thirty Years' War was closed by the 
Peace of Westphalia, in October, 1648, to the great joy of the 
German people, who had long clamored for peace. By this famous 
treaty, part of the German territory on the Rhine was ceded to 
France; the island of Rugen and part of Pomerania were surrendered 
to Sweden, which power thus became a member of the Empire and 
obtained three votes in the Germanic Diet; another portion of 
Pomerania was given to the Great Elector of Brandenburg; Lusatia 
was given to the Elector of Saxony ; the Upper Palatinate was given 
to the Elector of Bavaria; and Switzerland and Holland were 
acknowledged as independent republics, the former by the German 
Empire and the latter by Spain, the latter power having also lost 
Portugal in 1640, after a sixty years' union. The Peace of West- 
phalia confirmed the religious treaties of Passau and Augsburg, and 
secured religious freedom and equal civil and political rights to all 
sects in Germany. Thus closed a war which had cost Germany 
two-thirds of her population, and which had reduced many of hei 
cities, towns, and villages to ashes, reducing the country to a desert 
waste. The war shattered the Holy Roman Empire of the German 
Nation, which thereafter existed only in name, the numerous Ger- 
man princes bearing only a nominal allegiance to the Emperor. 
The Emperor Ferdinand III. died in 1657, and was succeeded by 
his son, Leopold I., who reigned forty-eight years (165 7-1 705). 
France and Spain continued the war against each other until 1659. 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 221 

SECTION II.— REVOLUTIONARY ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 

1. Character of James I. — His disputes with Parliament. — On the 

death of Queen Elizabeth, in 1603, King James VL of Scotland, 
son of the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots, became King of Eng- 
land with the title James I. He was the first English monarch of 
the Stuart family. He was exceedingly vain of his learning, and 
delighted to engage in theological discussions. He was of a peace- 
ful disposition, and therefore did not involve his kingdom in un- 
necessary wars with foreign powers. He firmly believed in the 
"divine right of kings;" and when the Commons by resolution 
asserted their ancient rights, the king tore the leaf recording the 
resolution from the journal of the House with his own hand. He 
bestowed his favor on unworthy persons, such as Robert Carr, Earl 
of Somerset, and George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. During 
his reign the accomplished Sir Walter Raleigh was imprisoned thir- 
teen years, and finally beheaded in 161 8 by order of the king. 
During this reign also Virginia and New England were settled. 
Under the auspices of King James I., our present translation of the 
Bible was made. 

2. Tlie Gunpowder Plot. — James I. was very intolerant to the 
English Roman Catholics, who still suffered under heavy penal laws 
enacted during the reign of Elizabeth. Accordingly, in 1605, a 
number of Roman Catholics, with Guy Fawkes at their head, formed 
a plot to blow up the Parliament-house with gunpowder, at a time 
when the King, the Lords, and the Commons would be assembled 
there, and thus destroy the whole government of England. The 
plot was discovered, and Guy Fawkes was detected in a cellar in 
which thirty-six barrels of gunpowder were concealed. . Guy Fawkes 
and the other conspirators were executed, and the Catholics were 
obliged to take an oath of allegiance to the king. 

3. Charles I. and Parliament. — Petition of Ris^ht. — James I. died 
in 1625, and was succeeded by his son, Charles I., who was soon 
involved in a violent struggle with Parliament, which was determined 
to uphold its own privileges and the rights and liberties of the Eng- 
lish people. Parliaments were frequently di.ssolved by the king,- but 
the next Parliament was always sure to be more obstinate than its 
predecessor. The king was exasperated because Parliament refused 
to vote supplies as freely as he desired. Parliament threatened the 
Duke of Buckingham with impeachment, and the king was obliged 
to sanction the Petition of Right presented to his majesty by both 
Houses of Parliament. 



2 22 MODERN HIS TO R Y. 

4. Tliomas Weiitvrortli, Earl of StaflFord, Prime Miuister. — When 
the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated, the king appointed 
Thomas Wentworth, one of the popular leaders, Prime Minister, and 
created him Earl of Strafford and Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 
Wentworth now abandoned the popular party, and labored earnestly 
for the strengthening of the royal prerogatives, and was looked upon 
by his former political associates as a traitor to his party. By his 
advice the king dissolved Parliament in 1629, and did not summon 
another for eleven years. 

5. Ai'bitrary measures of the King' and Arelibisliop Laud. — For the 
purpose of obtainmg money, King Charles L now had recourse to the 
most arbitrary and unjust expedients. Heavy fines were imposed 
for the most trifling offenses, and the king proceeded of his own 
account to levy heavy duties, called tonnai:^e dnd poundage, and ship- 
inoney. He also endeavored to suppress Puritanism in England and. 
Presbyterianism in Scotland, with the view of checking the rapid 
growth of republican principles among the English people ; and for 
this purpose he appointed the zealous Bishop Laud, of London, 
Archbishop of Canterbury. The arbitrary course pursued by Arch- 
bishop Laud against the Puritans aroused a storm of indignation 
throughout the kingdom. The resolute John Hampden was tried 
and condemned in the Exchequer Chamber, in the presence of all 
the Judges of England, for refusing to pay ship-money, but his course 
was heartily applauded by the Englsh people. 

6. The Scoteh Covenant. — Scotch rebellion. — The king's attempt to 
establish the Episcopal form of worship in Scotland produced a 
formidable rebellion in that country in 1637; and the Scotch peo- 
ple entered into The Solemn League and Covenant, to protect their 
Presbyterian form of worship. The king resorted to military force, 
but the zealous Scots defeated and routed the royal troops, and 
pursued them across the border into England. 

7. The Long' Parliament. — Charles L now summoned another Par- 
liament, to solicit aid against the Scotch rebels ; but this Parliament 
attacked the unlawful assumptions of the king, who consequently 
dissolved it in a fit of exasperation. The king was soon obliged to 
summon another Parliament, known as the Long Parliament, on 
account of the extraordinary length of its session. Its leading 
members — Sir Arthur Haslerig, John Hampden, John Pym, and 
Oliver Cromwell — were opposed to absolute monarchical power 
and Episcopal Church government, and were strong advocates of 
republican principles. 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR V. 223 

8. Trial and execution of Strafford. — Fate of Ai'chbishop Laud. — 

Instead of affording aid against the Scotch rebels, the Long Parlia- 
ment formed a secret league with them. Parliament next impeached 
the Earl of Strafford for high-treason. The king vainly endeavored 
to save his favorite Minister. The Commons were resolved upon 
his destruction. After a trial of seventy days, and a dignified and 
eloquent defense, Strafford was declared guilty and condemned to 
death. In a moment of weakness the king signed the death-warrant, 
and the unfortunate Strafford was beheaded. He died with firm- 
ness and resolution. Archbishop Laud was also impeached, tried, 
condemned, imprisoned, and beheaded four years afterward. The 
Courts of High Commission and the Star Chamber were now dis- 
solved, and the Episcopal bishops were excluded from their seats in 
the House of Lords. A dangerous Catholic rebellion in Ireland in 
1 641 was maliciously charged upon the king by the Commons. 

9. The King's rash act. — Parliamentary encroachments.— At length 
Charles L, exasperated at the increasing demands of Parliament, 
ordered five of its boldest members — Haslerig, Hollis, Hampden, 
Pym, and Strode — to be arrested, and went in person to the hall 
of the House of Commons to seize them. For this rash act the 
king afterwards found himself obliged to apologize in a humiliating 
message to Parliament. From this time Parliament encroached 
more and more on the royal prerogative, until scarcely a vestige 
of monarchical power remained. Parliament demanded that the 
appointment of ministers of state, and of military and naval com- 
manders, should depend upon their approval. 

10. Beginning of the Civil War. — Cavraliers and Roundheads. — 
The breach between King Charles I. and Parliament continually 
widened ; and in 1642 the king withdrew from London, and retired 
to York, where he declared war against Parliament. On August 
25, 1642, Charles erected the royal standard at Nottingham, but it 
was soon blown down by the violence of the wind. A civil war of 
six years now followed, in which rivers of English blood were shed 
on both sides. On the side of the king were the nobility, the 
Roman Catholic and Episcopal clergy, and all the advocates of the 
Established Church and of absolute monarchy. The king's sup- 
porters were called Cavaliers. On the side of Parliament were the 
Puritans, all who advocated a reform in Church and State, and all 
believers in -republican principles. The adherents of Parliament 
were nicknamed Roundheads by their enemies, on account of 
wearing their hair closely cropped to their heads. 



224 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



11. Battles of Edg-e Hill, Marston Moor, and Naseby. — The first 

great battle of the civil war — fought at Edge Hill, in Warwickshire 
(October 23, 1642) — was indecisive; the Royalists being com- 
manded by Prince Rupert of the Palatinate, the king's nephew, and 
the Parliamentarians by the Earl of Essex, son of Queen Elizabeth's 
unfortunate favorite. In 1643 Parliament lost a great leader in the 
death of John Hampden in a skirmish at Chalgrove Field ; and the 
Royalists experienced a great loss in the death of Lord Falkland in 
the first battle of Newbury. Victory crowned the arms of Parlia- 
ment after the sturdy Huntingdonshire Puritan, Oliver Cromwell, 
took the field in the cause of liberty, at the head of his invincible 
Ironsides — a body of pious cavalrymen, who spent their leisure in 
prayer, Psalm-singing, and Bible reading. The Parliamentary forces 
having united with an army of Scotch Covenanters in laying siege 
to York, Prince Rupert advanced with the Royal army to raise the 
siege; but was overwhelmingly defeated at Marston Moor (July 2, 
1644), with the loss of all his artillery, Cromwell's Ironsides being 
chiefly instrumental in achieving the Parliamentary victory. The 
Royalists also lost the second battle of Newbury, the same year. 
The Royal cause was utterly ruined in the decisive battle of Naseby, 
in Northamptonshire (June 14, 1645), where the king and Prince 
Pvupert were completely overthrown by Lord Fairfax and Oliver 
Cromwell, who captured all of the king's baggage and cannon. 

12. King- Cliarles I. a prisoner. — Pi'csbyteriaus and Independents. 

— King Charles I. surrendered himself to an army of Scotch Cove- 
nanters, who delivered him into the power of Parliament upon 
receiving 400,000 pounds sterling. The king's enemies were divided 
into two hostile factions — the Presbyterians, or advocates of a Pres- 
byterian Church establishment and a limited monarchy, and the In- 
depcmieuts, or believers in the absolute independence of each individ- 
ual congregation and in a republican form of goverment. The Pres- 
byterians had a majority in Parliament, and the Independents a 
majority in the army. Each endeavored to come to terms with the 
king, but he acted with insincerity toward both. The leader of the 
Independents was Oliver Cromwell, who caused the king to be 
seized by the army and confined at Hampton Court. The king 
escaped to the Isle of Wight, where he was detained in Carisbrook 
Castle by Colonel Hammond, until he was again seized by the army 
under Cromwell's secret orders, and confined at Hurst Castle. The 
Scotch Covenanters, having risen in the king's favor and invaded 
England in 1648, were defeated at Preston by Cromwell. 



SE VENTRE NTH CENTUR Y. 



225 



13. Colonel Pride's Piir^c. — Cromwell and the army triumphed 
over the Presbyterian majority in Parliament when Colonel Pride 
surrounded the Parliament-house with a body of troops and ex- 
cluded the Presbyterian members, thus leaving the Independents in 
exclusive possession of Parliament, which was thereafter known as 
the "Rump Parliament." This arbitrary proceeding — known as 
Colotiel Pride s Purge — occurred in December, 1648. 

14. Trial and execution of Charles I. — The "Rump Parliament" 
passed an act declaring it high-treason for a king to levy war against 
the people's representatives; and declared also that "the people 
are, under God, the origin of all just power," and that "the Com- 
mons of England in Parliament assembled, chosen by and repre- 
senting the people, are the supreme authority of the nation." The 
"Rump Parliament" also, by a unanimous vote, impeached 
"Charles Stuart" in the name of the people of England, and 
resolved to bring him to trial for "the treason, blood, and mischief 
he was guilty of." On January 20, 1649, a High Court of Justice 
— consisting of 133 members and presided over by John Bradshaw, 
an eminent lawyer — assembled in Westminster-hall to try the king. 
But Charles I. persistently denied the jurisdiction of the court, 
and obstinately reasserted that his power was derived from the 
" Supreme Majesty of Heaven." After a trial of seven days, he was 
declared guilty and condemned to death as "a tyrant, traitor, 
murderer, and public enemy." After taking an affectionate fare- 
well of his family, the king was taken to the place of execution, in 
front of the palace of Whitehall, January 30, 1649. ^^ ascended 
the scaffold with a firm step] and in his last moments he reasserted 
his "divine rights," and declared that "the people had no right to- 
any part in the government, that being a thing nothing pertaining, 
to them." Addressing those around him, he declared himself 
innocent toward his people, and forgave his enemies. Turning to- 
Bishop Juxon, he said: "I go from a corruptible to an incor- 
ruptible crown, where no disturbance can take place." The bishop 
replied: "You exchange a temporal for an eternal crown; a. 
good exchange." The king then laid his head upon the block,, 
saying to Bishop Juxon : " Remember." One of the executioners 
then cut off the king's "gray-haired, discrowned head;" and: 
another, holding it aloft, exclaimed: "This is the head of a 
traitor !" Many of the spectators wept at the horrid spectacle. 
The execution of Charles I. aroused horror and indignation through- 
out Europe, and the English ambassadors in the different European 

15 



2 26 MODERN HIS TOR V. 

capitals were driven away, or murdered. From 1660 to 1859 the 
30th of January was annually commemorated as the "Day of King 
Charles the Martyr," by special services in the Church of England, 
and by solemn mourning on the part of the English royal family. 

15. Abolition of Monarchy. — The ConinioHwealth of England. — A 
few days after the execution of Charles I., the Monarchy and the 
House of Lords were abolished by the Commons; and the "Rump 
Parliament," upheld by Oliver Cromwell and the army, governed 
the country. The new republic was styled T/ie Coininomvcalth of 
England. The Commons declared it high-treason to acknowledge 
the Prince of Wales, King of England, and ordered a new seal to be 
engraved with the legend, "The first year of freedom by God's 
grace restored, 1648." 

10. Ireland and Scotland reduced by Cromwell. — Dunbar and Wor- 
cester. — Cromwell reduced the Irish Royalists, under the Marquis 
of Ormond, to submission, after a campaign of terrible severity, 
taking Drogheda and Wexford by storm and putting their garrisons 
to the sword; and many of the Irish left the island and entered the 
service of foreign princes, while English colonists peopled many dis- 
tricts in Ireland. Cromwell next proceeded against the Scotch Cov- 
enanters, who had proclaimed the late king's son, Prince Charles, 
King; and defeated them at Dunbar (September 3, 1650); after 
which he pursued the Scots under Prmce Charles into England and 
overthrew them at Worcester \woos' -ter'\ (September 3, 1651) — ex- 
actly one year after his victory at Dunbar; and Prince Charles, 
after many romantic escapes, reached the Continent in safety. Ire- 
land was fully subdued by General Ireton, Cromwell's son-in-law, 
and Scotland was completely reduced by General Monk. 

17. First naval war with Holland. — The passage of the celebrated 
Navigation Act by the English Parliament in 1651, prohibiting 
foreigners from bringing into England in their own ships anything 
but their own productions, operated injuriously to the Dutch, then 
the leading commercial people of Europe ; and occasioned a fierce 
and bloody naval war between England and Holland in 1652. 
After defeating the English fleet under Admiral Blake in November, 
1652, the Dutch admiral Van Tromp sailed up and down the Chan- 
nel with a broom at his masthead, to signify his intention of sweep- 
ing the English from the sea. After a four days' indecisive battle 
in February, 1653, the English fleets under Admiral Blake and 
General Monk gained great victories over the Dutch fleet under 
Van Tromp, in June and July, 1653, Van Tromp being killed in 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR V. 227 

the last engagement. The Peace of Westminster, in April, 1654, 
required the Dutch to lower their flag whenever vessels of the two 
nations met at sea. 

18. Cromwell's dissolution of the "Rump Parliament." — In the 
meantime Oliver Cromwell quarreled with the "Rump Parlia- 
»ient;" and in April, 1653, he entered the Parliament-house with 
300 soldiers and addressed the inembers thus: "For shame, get 
you gone ! Give place to honester men ! You are no longer a 
Parliament! The Lord has done with you !" After the soldiers 
had driven the members from the hall, Cromwell locked the doors, 
and putting the keys into his pocket, returned to Whitehall, undis- 
puted master of England. 

19. Barel)one's Parliament. — Cromwell summoned another Parlia- 
ment, composed of the most ignorant religious fanatics, the most 
prominent of whom was the leather-seller Barebone ; and the Parlia- 
ment is therefore known as ^^ Bat-ebone's Parliament.^' The con- 
duct of this Parliament was so ridiculous that Cromwell became 
ashamed of it; and in December, 1653, some of the members vol- 
untarily resigned their power into Cromwell's hands, and the others 
were driven from the hall by the military under Cromwell's orders. 

20. Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England. — 
A new constitution called the Instmme?it of Government, now vested 
Cromwell with the supreme power with the \\i\Q oi Lord Protector 
of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell 
shared the government with a Council and a Parliament, but he 
was a monarch in all but in name. As Lord Protector, Cromwell 
governed vigorously and successfully, and made England respected 
at home and al>road. 

21. War with Spain. — In a war with Spain (165 5-1 65 8) — during 
which England and France were allies — the English wrested the 
island of Jamaica from the Spaniards ; and that island has ever 
since been in England's possession. The gallant Blake destroyed a 
Spanish fleet in the harbor of Santa Cruz, and humbled the pirates 
of Algiers; while Dunkirk was wrested from the Spaniards by the 
combined forces of France and England. Cromwell, by his inter- 
vention, put a stop to the persecution of the Protestant Vaudois by 
the Duke of Savoy. 

22. Conspiracies against Cromwell. — His death. — In 1655 a dan- 
gerous Royalist conspiracy against Cromwell was discovered. Con- 
spiracy after conspiracy embittered the last days of Cromwell's life, 
and he was now equally hated by Royalists and Republicans. Three 



228 MODERN HIS TORY. 

of his daughters were zealous Royalists, and one was a violent Repub- 
lican. Worn out by constant anxiety, and in continual dread of 
assassination, Cromwell was relieved of his miserable existence by a 
slow fever, of which he died September 3, 165S — the anniversary of 
his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester. Thus died the ablest 
ruler that England has ever produced, although he was a usurper. 

23. Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector. — Restoration of Monarchy. 
— Richard Cromwell became Lord Protector upon his father's 
death; but as he was of a quiet and unambitious disposition, he 
resigned the Protectorship in the course of a few months and retired 
to private life. The conviction now became general that nothing 
but a restoration of monarchy would free England from a state of 
anarchy, as the country was now virtually without any government, 
and contending factions in Parliament and in the army contended 
for supremacy. Finally General Monk led his army from Scotland 
to London, opened a secret correspondence with Prince Charles in 
Holland, and proposed the restoration of monarchy to a new Parli- 
ament which he had assembled — a proposal hailed with joy by the 
English people. On May 8, 1660, Prince Charles, son of Charles 
L, was proclaimed King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, with 
the title of Charles IL; and on May 29, 1660 — his birth-day — he 
entered London. The House of Lords reinstated itself in its former 
dignity, and everything was restored to its ancient footing. 

24. Character of Charles II. — His first measures. — Charles IL was 
thirty years old when he found himself so suddenly and unexpectedly 
seated on the throne of England. His excessive indolence and love 
of pleasure made him hate business and leave the government of 
England entirely in the hands of others. Upon coming to the 
throne he granted an amnesty to his father's enemies, except ten of 
the regicides, who were brought to the scaffold; and the bodies'of 
Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw were torn from their graves and 
hung upon gibbets. The Episcopal Church was reestablished in its 
former position. 

25. Second naval war with Holland. — The English people were 
displeased with the king's marriage with a Portuguese princess in 
1662, although England thus acquired the Portuguese possession of 
Bombay, in Hindoostan; but they were still more dissatisfied when 
he sold Dunkirk to France, and invo)"ed England in a useless naval 
war with Holland in 1664. The English conquered the Dutch 
colony of New Netherlands, in North America, in 1664, and the 
English navy under the Duke of York, the king's brother, defeated 



S£ VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



229 



the Dutch fleet in 1665 ; and an indecisive battle of four days was 
followed by another English victory; but the Dutch fleet entered 
the Thames and the Medway^ burned Chatham, captured Sheerness, 
and threatened London. Louis XIV. of France was the ally, first 
of the Dutch, and afterwards of the English. The Peace of Breda 
ended the war in 1667. 

26. Great plague and fii'e iu London. — While the war with Holland 
was in progress, London suffered two great calamities. In the sum- 
mer of 1665 a great plague destroyed the lives of 100,000 of its 
inhabitants; and in September, 1666, a great fire, which raged three 
days, reduced two-thirds of the city to ashes. The rebuilding of 
St. Paul's cathedral was the work of the great architect. Sir Chris- 
topher Wren. These awful calamities had no influence on the king, 
who had plunged into luxury, extravagance, and vice. 

27. Clarendon's disgrace and exile. — The Cabal. — In 1667 the king's 
virtuous Prime Minister, the Earl of Clarendon, who was hated by 
the king's licentious favorites, fell into disgrace, false charges being 
brought against him, and he was obliged to retire into voluntary 
exile; whereupon Charles II. entrusted the government to five of 
his unworthy favorites — Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, 
and Lauderdale — who formed the Cabal, so-called from the initials 
of their names. The Cabal conducted the government entirely in 
accordance with the king's wishes, regardless of the interests or lib- 
erties of the English people. 

28. Third naval war with Holland. — In 1672, Charles II., con- 
trary to the wishes of his subjects, began another naval war against 
Holland, as an ally of King Louis XIV. of France, from whom he 
received a secret pension. The English nation hung its head in 
shame at this disgrace, and the discontent of the English people 
and Parliament forced Charles II. to make peace with the Dutch in 
1674, the Cabal having now been broken up and a more worthy 
Ministry appointed. 

29. Contests between Charles n. and Parliament. — King Charles 
II., unwarned by his father's fate, strove for absolute power; and 
during his whole reign he was engaged in a continual struggle with 
Parliament, which sought to defend its own privileges and the rights 
and liberties of the English people. Charles II. was believed to be 
a Roman Catholic at heart, and his brother, James, Duke of York, 
was an avowed Catholic; but the more the Stuarts favored Roman 
Catholicism, the more the English people adhered to Protestantism. 
The Parliament which had assembled in 1660 was dissolved by 



2 30 MODERN HIS TOR V. 

Charles II. in 1668, and a new one was summoned, which was more 
subservient to the king's wishes; and a new Ministry, headed by the 
Earl of Shaftesbury, who had joined the popular party, now came 
into power. 

30. Test Act. — Habeas Corpus Act. — After a long struggle. Parlia- 
ment finally passed the Tis/ Act, which allowed none but members 
of the Church of England and confessors of the Protestant faith to 
be admitted to seats in Parliament, or to hold civil or military 
offices. In 1679 Parliament passed the celebrated Habeas Corpus 
Act, which protected freedom of person against arbitrary arrests. 
According to the provisions of the act no person could be lawfully 
detained in prison, unless he were accused of some specified offense 
for which he was legally subject to punishment; and within three 
days the prisoner was to be brought before the Judge and reasons 
shown why he was not set at liberty. 

31. Wliig-s and Tories. — Titus Oates. — Rye-House Plot. — During 
these contests between Charles II. and Parliament originated the 
two parties — Whigs and Tories — the former maintaining the right 
of the people to resist royal tyranny, and the latter denying the 
right of resistance under any circumstances whatever. In 1678 
Titus Oates, an infamous imposter, pretended to have discovered a 
Roman Catholic plot to burn London, murder the king, and place 
the Duke of York upon the throne; and upon his testimony, and 
that of another miscreant named Bedloe, many innocent Catholics 
were punished with death. In 1683 ^ conspiracy called the Rye- 
House Plot, contrived by some worthless characters for the murder 
of the king, was discovered ; and Lord William Russell and Algernon 
Sidney, two of the worthiest men of that age, were falsely charged 
with being concerned in the plot, and were consequently beheaded. 
The Earl of Shaftesbury now fled to Holland, Parliament was dis- 
solved, and from that time until his death, two years later, Charles 
II. was as absolute a monarch as any in Europe. 

32. James II. — Moiuuouth's RebeUion. — On the death of Charles 
II., in 1685, his brother, the Duke of York, ascended the throne of 
England, with the title of James II. A rebellion of the Duke of 
Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., who claimed the throne, 
was speedily quelled ; Monmouth being defeated at Sedgemoor, 
captured, and beheaded (July, 1685) ; and the brutal Judge Jeffreys 
passed through the kingdom with a band of executioners, practicing 
the greatest cruelties, thus subjecting his memory to infamy and 
execration. 



SE VENTRE NTH CENTUR Y. 2 3 1 

33. James n. attempts to restore popery iu England. — James II. 
was a bigoted Roman Catholic, and from the day of his coronation 
he entertained the design of restoring popery and absolute royal 
power in England. The cruel Judge Jeffreys was made Chancellor, 
and many of the civil offices were filled with Roman Catholics, in 
defiance of the Test Act. In June, 1688, the tyrannical king sent 
the Archbishop of Canterbury and six other bishops to the Tower 
for mildly protesting against his measures; but the acquittal of the 
bishops by a jury (June 30, 1688) was hailed with enthusiastic 
demonstrations of joy by the people of London, the bells being 
rung, bonfires blazing in every street, and rockets lighting up the 
heavens. Taxes were levied without the consent of Parliament ; and 
James II. finally declared that the king possessed the right to grant 
a suspension of the Test Act, thus virtually assuming that the king 
had the right to set all laws at naught. 

34. Revolution of 1688. — William and Mary. — Bill of Rights. — 

The English people had for three years quietly borne the tyranny 
of James II., but their patience finally became exhausted. Late in 
1688 they determined upon his dethronement, and many of the 
most prominent men in England invited his son-in-law, William, 
Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, to accept 
the crown of England. A declaration from the Prince of Orange 
that he was coming to England to defend liberty and Protestantism 
was hailed with joy by the English people. On November 14, 1688, 
William of Orange landed in England, at the head of 14,000 Dutch 
troops, and was everywhere welcomed by the English people. The 
English army joined the invaders; the English nobility and the 
whole nation abandoned James II., and turned their eyes toward 
the Prince of Orange ; and even the courtiers and the children of 
James II. abandoned the king in his distress. The unhappy mon- 
arch now resolved upon flight; and, after casting the great seal into 
the Thames \temz\ and sending his wife and infant son to France, 
James II. left London, December 12, 1688, and landed in France 
December 25, 1688, and resided thereafter in that country as a pen- 
sioner of King Louis XIV. A Convention-Parliament, which now 
assembled, deposed the Catholic line of the House of Stuart, and 
proclaimed the Prince and Princess of Orange joint sovereigns, with 
the title of William and Mary. The new sovereigns received the 
English crown upon certain conditions, clearly specified in 2i Bill of 
Rights, as follows: i. The king cannot suspend the laws or their 
execution; 2. He cannot levy money without the consent of Par- 



232 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



liament; 3. The subjects have a right to petition the crown ; 4. A 
standing army cannot be kept in time of peace without the consent 
of Parliament; 5. Elections and parliamentary debates must be free, 
and parliaments must be frequently assembled. Thus after a century 
of struggles with the royal House of Stuart, the English people estab- 
lished their free constitution on a firm basis ; and ever since the 
^'' Ghwioits Revolution of 1688" England has had a free constitu- 
tional government. Power was transferred from the king to the 
House of Commons; the monarch reigns as a mere figure-head, and 
" the king can do no wrong ;" and his Ministers, being responsible 
for the government's policy, only remain in power so long as they 
are supported by a majority in the popular branch of Parliament. 

So. Rise of the Irish ag-ainst William and Mary. — Battle of the 
Boyiie. — The Catholic Irish, headed by tlie Earl of Tyrconnel, Lord- 
Lieutenant of Ireland, drew their swords for the fallen James 11. , 
and were aided by Louis XIV., King of France. James was con- 
veyed to Ireland by a French fleet. The Protestant town of Lon- 
donderry, in the North of Ireland, was besieged by James himself, 
but made a heroic and successful defense ; and James was over- 
thrown by King William, at the head of a large English army, in 
the decisive battle of the Boyne (July 12, 1690), and obliged to 
seek refuge in France. By the Pacification of Limerick in 1691, 
Ireland submitted to William and Mary; and the Peace of Ryswick 
ended the war with France in 1697. 

36. Rise of the Scotch Hig'lilauders ag'aiiist William aud Mary. — 
Massacre of Gleucoe. — The Scotch Highlanders — who had also re- 
volted against William and Mary, and whose leader. Viscount Dun- 
dee, met victory and death in the battle of Killiecrankie in 1689 — 
were also subdued ; but the triumph of the new sovereigns was 
stained by a needless act of cruelty — the Massacre of Glencoe, in 
which the clan of the Campbells murdered the clan of the Macdon- 
alds, after they had taken an oath of allegiance to William and 
Mary. Queen Mary died in 1694, and King William in 1702; and 
with his successor, Anne (i 702-1 714), daughter of the ill-fated 
James II., ended the Stuart dynasty. 

SECTION III.— ASCENDENCY OF FRANCE DURING 
THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

1. Louis Xm. — Mary de Medicis. — Cardinal Richelieu. — The mur- 
dered Henry IV. — the first of the Bourbon Kings of France — wai 
succeeded by his son, Louis XIII. (1610-1643); during whose min- 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



233 



ority the queen-mother, Mary de Medicis \deh ;«^</'-<f-^<?], conducted 
the government as regent. As Mary reposed her confidence in her 
Italian favorites, the French nobles rose in rebellion. When Louis 
XIII. arrived at his majority he caused his mother's Italian favorites 
to be removed by exile or assassination — Marshal D'Ancre \jion^- 
ker\ being among the murdered — and appointed the great Cardinal 
Richelieu \j'eesH-lu'\ Prime Minister. For eighteen years (1624- 
1642), Richelieu governed France in the most absolute and des- 
potic manner ; the weak king being a mere crowned cipher and 
Richelieu virtual master, Richelieu humbled the Huguenots in 
three wars, and finally broke their power by the capture cf their 
stronghold, La Rochelle \_ro-sher\ in 1628; which, although aided 
by an English fleet, was taken, but only after a heroic defense, dur- 
ing which almost the entire garrison perished from hunger ; but the 
Huguenots were secured in their privileges by a confirmation of the 
Edict of Nantes. Richelieu crushed and thwarted the many plots 
against his power, and subdued the rebellious French nobles, whose 
power was utterly broken, and several of whom — the Cinq Mars 
\sank-7ner'\ De Thou \deU-too\, and Duke Henry of Montmorenci 
— were beheaded. Richelieu likewise made France respected 
abroad, and by war and diplomacy placed her above all the other 
nations of Europe, humbling the proud House of Austria by leagu- 
ing with the German Protestants and the Swedes in the Thirty 
Years' War. He likewise encouraged art, science, and literature, 
and founded the French Academy in 1635. The great cardinal- 
statesman died in 1642, and Louis XIII. died the following year 
(1643)- 

2. Loiiis XIV. — Anne of Austria. — Cardinal Mazarin. — Wars of the 
Fronde. — Louis XIII. was succeeded by his son, Louis XIV., who 
reigned seventy-two years (i 643-1 715), and during whose minority 
the government was conducted by the queen-mother, Anne of Aus- 
tria, as regent. As Anne reposed her confidence in the Italian, 
Cardinal Mazarin, whose principles and aims were the same as those 
of Richelieu, the French nobles violently opposed her and endeav- 
ored to regain their former power and influence. In 164S the dis- 
contented nobles, led by Cardinal de Retz, rose in arms against the 
regent and Cardinal Mazarin ; and thus arose the four years' civil 
war known as the Wars of the Fronde. Mazarin was obliged to 
leave Paris for a time. Bloody battles occurred in the suburbs of 
Paris, and the two great generals, Conde \_ko7ii-dd\ and Turenne 
\Joo-rei]l\, fought on opposite sides. The insurgents were finally sub- 



234 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



dued in 1652 by Turenne's victory over Conde in the suburb of St. 
Antoine \_sang ong-tivaiv)^\ and Mazarin entered Paris in triumph. 
Absolute monarchy was now fully established. 

3. >Var with Spain. — Peace of the PjTeuees. — The Peace of West- 
phalia in 1648 did not restore peace between France and Spain, 
which had engaged in the Thirty Years' War on opposite sides in 
1635. The war, begun by Richelieu, continued almost to the end 
of Mazarin's administration; and hostilities were prosecuted with 
various success in the Spanish Netherlands and in Northern Spain. 
The Spaniards, under Conde — who, having been banished from 
France during the Wars of the Fronde, now fought against his 
native land— were defeated by the French under Marshal Turenne 
in the siege of Arras in 1654; but Conde won a victory at Valen- 
ciennes \_val-en-se-on^'\ in 1656. In 1655 England joined France in 
the war, and Dunkirk surrendered to the allies after Turenne's victory 
over Conde in the battle of the Dunes in 1658. By the Peace of 
the Pyrenees, in November, 1659, the infanta Maria Theresa — 
daughter of King Philip IV. of Spain (i 621-1665) — was given in 
marriage to Louis XIV., who renounced all claims to the Spanish 
dominions, and pardoned Conde and restored him to the royal 
favor. 

4. Louis XIT., liis generals and ministers, and g-lorious reig-n. — 

Upon Mazarin's death in 1661, Louis XIV. took the government 
of France into his own hands, and appointed no Prime Minister ; 
and, with the maxim '■' I a/n the state,'' he ruled in the most absolute 
and despotic manner for fifty-four years (1661-1715), his Ministers 
being but passive instruments for the execution of his will. Louis 
XIV. was the greatest monarch of his age, and the greatest of 
French kings ; and his generals — Conde, Turenne, and Luxembourg 
— surpassed the generals of all other countries. His Minister of 
Finance, Colbert \_kdl-l)are''\, managed the French finances with 
great skill, and encouraged all kinds of manufactures; and his 
Minister of War, Louvois \_Ioo-7iia7c/'\, also possessed talents necessary 
for the direction of great exploits. The great engineer, Vauban 
\yo-bo}?g''\, strengthened the fortresses on the French frontiers. 
Magnificent works — such as the Palace of Versailles, the Louvre, 
the Hotel des Invalides, and the Canal of Languedoc — are standing 
monuments of the glory of this reign. French tastes, fashions, lan- 
guage, habits, and modes of thought began to be adopted by the 
cultured and higher circles of Europe. Louis XIV. was a great 
patron of literature and the arts ; and the period of his reign — 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



235 



known as the Augustan Age of French literature — was adorned by 
the genius of the dramatists, Corneille, Moliere, and Racine \ja- 
seen''\; the poet, Boileau \_bwaw-lo'~\; the fabuHst, La Fontaine; 
and the divines, Bossuet \_bos-swa''\ Bourdaloue [^boor-da-ioo'l Mas- 
sillon \jnas-seei-ydng''\, Bayle, and Fen'elon. 

5. War with Spain. — Tx'iple Alliance. — Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. — 

In 1667 Louis XIV. made war on Spain for the purpose of seizing 
the Spanish Netherlands, in utter violation of the Peace of the Pyr- 
enees ; and the French army subdued the Spanish Netherlands in 
two campaigns; but the other Powers of Europe became alarmed, 
and England, Holland, and Sweden formed a Triple Alliance to 
defend Spain against the attacks of France ; whereupon Louis XIV. 
was obliged to restore his conquests by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
in 1668. 

6. War with Holland and her allies. — Peace of Ninieg'uen. — In 1672 
Louis XIV. marched an army of 200,000 men into Holland to 
avenge himself on the originator of the Triple Alliance. The 
French army advanced almost to Amsterdam. The Dutch implored 
peace, but the haughty French king refused. The Dutch were 
about to abandon their country and sail to their East India posses- 
sions, when their leaders, John and Cornelius De Witt, were assas- 
sinated, and Prince William of Orange became Stadtholder; and 
Amsterdam was saved by opening the dykes and laying the country 
under water. In 1674, the Emperor Leopold I., Spain, Denmark, 
and the Great Elector of Brandenburg came to Holland's rescue; 
and Charles II. of England was forced by his Parliament and peo- 
ple to renounce his alliance with Louis XIV.; but Sweden became 
the ally of France. The French army now retired from Holland ; 
but in the Spanish Netherlands Conde held back the allies, and de- 
feated William of Orange at Senef in 1674; while Marshal Turenne 
ravaged the Palatinate of the Rhine with fire and sword, laying two 
cities and twenty-five villages in ashes, and successfully contended 
against the German imperial general, Montecuculi \jnon-te-koo' -koo- 
/^]; but Turenne was killed by a cannon-ball at Salzbach in 1675. 
In 1676 the Dutch fleet was thrice defeated in the Mediterranean 
by the French fleet under Du Quesne \_du-kane''\, and the Dutch 
admiral, De Ruyter, was mortally wounded. By the Peace of Nime- 
guen, in 1678, Holland lost nothing, but Spain surrendered Franche 
Comte [fransh-kong'-ta'\ and French Flanders to the King of France, 
who was now at the height of his power and glory, as the arbiter 
of the destinies of Europe. 



236 



MODERN HI ST OR Y. 



7. Aarg-ressions of Louis XIY. — Alg-iers and Genoa bombarded. — 

Louis XIV. continued his aggressions upon Spain and Germany; 
and in 16S1 he seized and fortified the free city of Strasburg. In 
1683 a French fleet bombarded Algiers and forced the pirates to beg 
for mercy; and in 1684 Genoa was also bombarded by the French 
navy, for refusing to permit Louis to establish a depot within its 
territory. 

8. Persecution of the Hug-ueuots. — Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 

— His first queen having died, Louis XIV. married Madame de 
Maintenon in 1685. Under the instigation of his new queen and 
his confessor, the bigoted Le Tellier \le-tel-le-a!\ troops of dragoons 
were sent against the Huguenots to make them conform to the 
Catholic faith. Hence the persecution was called a Dragonimde. 
Many of the Huguenots were cruelly massacred, and the ports were 
closed against them to prevent their escape from the country. In 
1685 Louis XIV. revoked the i^.xi\ow^ Edict of Nantes , by which the 
good Henry IV. had established the religious equality of all faiths 
in France. The Huguenot churches were destroyed, and Protest- 
ant children were taken from their parents, in order that they 
might be instructed m the Catholic faith. Thereupon half a million 
Huguenots fled from their native land, and found refuge in Eng- 
land, Holland, and Germany; thus depriving France of much of 
her industrial population, and inflicting a severe blow upon her 
material prosperity. 

9. War of tlie League of Aug^sburg. — Peace of Ryswick. — The ag- 
gressions of Louis XIV. upon the other European states led to the 
formation of \.\\q League of Augsbitfghy the Emperor Leopold I., 
the leading German princes, Sweden, Spain, Holland, and the 
Duke of Savoy, in 1686; and the accession of Prince William of 
Orange, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, to the English 
throne in 1689 placed England at the head of the coalition agamst 
France. The war which now followed convulsed Europe for eight 
years, and was conducted with great vigor and with a mighty ex- 
penditure of blood and treasure. In 1688 a French army utterly 
devastated the beautiful district of the Palatinate of the Rhine with 
fire and sword, reducing over forty cities and hundreds of flourishing 
villages to ashes. The French arms were everywhere triumphant. 
In the Spanish Netherlands, Marshal Luxembourg defeated the Prince 
of Waldeck at Fleurus (1690), and William III. of England and 
Holland at Steinkirk (1692) and Neerwinden (1694); and in Italy 
Marshal Catinat [^kat'-c-tja/i] defeated the Duke of Savoy at Mar- 



SE VENTEENTII CENTUR Y. 237 

saglia \inar-sair -ya\ (1694); while in Germany and Spain the 
French were also successful. The French navy under Admiral 
Tourville defeated the English and Dutch fleets in a great battle off 
Beachy Head, on the southern coast of England (1690), and after 
being defeated by the English fleet mider Admiral Rooke off Cape 
La Hogue, on the French coast (1692), Tourville defeated Admiral 
Rooke in Lagos Bay (1694). By the Peace of Ryswick, in 1697, 
Louis XIV. — notwithstanding his triumphs — restored the territory 
he had conquered from Spain and Germany. 

SECTION IV.— RISE OF THE STATES-SYSTEM IN THE 
NORTH AND EAST OF EUROPE. 

1. Swwlen's ascendency in the North. — Qneen Christina. — During 
the sixty years' reign of Christian IV. (1588-1648), Denmark was 
prosperous, although engaged in several disastrous wars with Sweden. 
The Thirty Years' War made Sweden the great military power of 
the North, and gave rise to the States-System in the Northern king- 
doms of Europe. During the minority of Christina — the daughter 
and successor of Gustavus Adolphus — the great Swedish statesman, 
Axel Oxenstiern \ox-en-steeni\ acted as regent of Sweden. Chris- 
tina's love f'^r science and literature induced her to abdicate her 
throne in 1654 and to leave Sweden, whereupon she was succeeded 
by her cousin, Charles X. (1654-1660). Christma spent the remain- 
ing thirty-five years of her life in wandering over Europe, dividing 
her time between learning and vice, becoming a Roman Catholic, 
and ending her dissolute life in Rome in 16S9. 

2. Wars of Charles X. of Sweden witli Poland and Denmark.— As 

John Casimir, Kuig of Poland, claimed the Swedish crown, Charles 
X. invaded Poland, gained several victories, and twice entered War- 
saw (165 5-' 5 6); while his ally, the Czar Alexis of Russia, wrested 
Smolensk from Poland, and the Cossacks revolted from Poland and 
placed themselves under Russian dominion. But the Czar of Russia 
now changed sides and united with Poland, Denmark, the German 
Emperor Leopold I., the Great Elector of Brandenburg, and the 
Dutch Republic in an alliance against Sweden. The King of 
Sweden then made a sudden dash at Denmark, crossing the two Belts 
with his army on the ice, and laying siege to Copenhagen; but the 
interference of the Great Elector of Brandenburg and of the Dutch 
Republic, in favor of the Danes, led to the Peace of Roskild, in 1658. 
In a few months Charles X. renewed the war and again besieged 
Copenhagen, the Danes being aided in their defense by a Dutch 



228 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

fleet ; but the threatened interference of England, France, and Hol- 
land, and the death of Charles X. in 1660, induced Sweden to con- 
clude the Peace of Copenhagen with Denmark and the Peace of 
Olivia with Poland ; thus ending the ambitious schemes of Charles 
X. to establish a powerful Scandinavian empire in the North under 
the supremacy of Sweden. 

3. War of Charles XI. of Sweden with Denmark and Brandenburg'. — 

King Frederick III. of Denmark, by the Royal Law promulgated 
in 1660, converted his kingdom from an elective into an absolute 
hereditary monarchy, depriving the Danish Diet and nobility of their 
privileges. Charles XI. of Sweden (i 660-1 697), as an ally of Louis 
XIV., engaged m a disastrous war with Christian V. of Denmark 
and the Great Elector of Brandenburg in 1675 — during which the 
Danes and Dutch defeated the Swedes at sea, and the Swedes hav- 
ing invaded Brandenburg, were defeated by the Great Elector at 
Fehrbellin (June 28, 1675) — ^^'^ ^^e interference of the French king 
compelled the Great Elector \iy \\\t Peace of St. Germain-en-laye, 
and the Danes by the Peace of Lund, to restore all territory wrested 
from the Swedes. In 1680 Charles XI. established absolute royal 
power in Sweden, depriving the Swedish Diet and nobility of their 
privileges. 

4. Poland's decline and wjirs with Sweden, Russia and Turkey. — 

The elective kingdom of Poland was gradually declining during the 
seventeenth century. Every election of king by the Diet was a 
scene of violent contention, and Llie unfortunate country was con- 
stantly torn by domestic dissentions, and involved in wars with the 
Swedes, Russians, Turks, and Tartars. King Ladislas VII. (_i632- 
1648J defeated the Swedes, Russians, and Turks; but the Cossacks 
transferred their allegiance to the Czar of Russia, and during the 
unfortunate reign of John Casimir (1648-1668) Poland was invaded 
by the Swedes and Russians. The Liberum Veto enabled a single 
member of the Polish Diet to defeat any measure to which he was 
opposed. John Sobieski (i 674-1 696), although victorious over the 
Turks, Tartars, and Cossacks, was compelled, with tears in his eyes, 
to surrender a large part of his territories, by treaty, to Russia. 

5. The Great Elector of Brandenburg- and founding of Prussia. — 

Frederick William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg (1640-1688), 
laid the foundation of the kingdom of Prussia. In addition to being 
Elector of Brandenburg he was Duke of Prussia. He liberated 
Prussia from her vassalage to Poland, and encouraged art, science, 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 239 

literature, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. His son and 
successor, Frederick, was crowned the first King of Prussia in 1701. 

6. Russia under the Romanoffs. — Pet«r the Great. — After the 

Russians had driven the Poles from Moscow, which they had taken 
in 1610 and burned in 161 2, the good and peaceable Czar, Michael 
Romanoff (161 3-1 645) — who ceded the Baltic provinces of Russia 
to Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden by the Peace of Stolhova in 161 7 
— became the founder of the illustrious dynasty of the Romanoffs, 
under whom Russia emerged from Asiatic barbarism to European 
civilization and became one of the rising powers of Europe. Mich- 
ael's son and successor — Alexis (i 645-1 676) — recovered Smolensk 
and Kiev from the Poles, the latter by the Peace of Andnissav in 
1667; subdued the Cossacks, and checked the progress of the 
Swedes and Turks. Feodor (i 676-1 682) — the son and successor 
of Alexis — established the absolute power of the Czars by destroying 
the genealogical registers upon which the Russian nobles had based 
their claims. During the reign of the imbecile Ivan V. (1682- 
1689) — Feodor's brother and successor — his sister Sophia acted as 
regent. Ivan's brother and successor — the illustrious Peter the Great 
(1689-1725) — travelled over Europe to learn the practical advan- 
tages of civilization, and worked as a common ship-carpenter in 
Holland and in England. Peter began the introduction of European 
civilization and Western customs and manners into his empire ; and 
although he remained a cruel barbarian, devoted to brandy and 
guilty of some shocking crimes, he did more for the civilization and 
welfare of the Russian people than all his predecessors. He often 
said he could correct the faults of his subjects, but could not reform 
himself. He punished a revolt of the Strelitzes by many executions, 
and replaced them with a regular standing army. 

7. Decline of Turkey.— Turkish wars with Persia, Venice, Austria, 
and Poland. — Sultan Mohammed III., who secured the Turkish 
throne by murdering his nineteen brothers, invaded the Austrian 
territories, and killed 50,000 Christians and captured 100 cannon in 
a three days' battle at Kerestezes in 1596; but the war ended dis- 
astrously for the Turks, and in 1607 x\-\t Peace of Sitvatorok \V2& 
concluded between the German and Ottoman Empires. The Otto- 
man Empire then declined, and the Janizaries raised up and de- 
posed or murdered Sultans at will. In 1621 Sultan Othman II. 
made an unsuccessful attempt to conquer Poland. Sultan Amurath 
IV. defeated the Persians, captured Bagdad, and massacred its 
people in 1638. In a twenty-four years' war with Venice, the 



240 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



Turks conquered the island of Candia, or Crete, in 1669, after a 
siege which cost them 100,000 Hves. The Turks also invaded 
Hungary and Austria in 1664, but after their defeat by the Ger- 
mans under Montecuculi at St. Gothard, the twenty years' Truce 
of Vasvar was concluded between the German and Ottoman Em- 
pires. In 1673 the Turks invaded Poland, but the brilliant victor- 
ies of the valiant Polish king, John Sobieski, "the Buckler of 
Christ," over large Turkish hosts drove the invaders from Poland 
and electrified all Christendom. 

8. Tnrlvisli invasion of Austria and siea^e of Vienna. — Peace of Carlo- 
witz.- — -The tyranny of the Emperor Leopold I. over his Protestant 
Hungarian subjects caused a revolt of the Hungarians led by 
Emmerik Tekeli, who received effective aid from the French and 
the Turks; and in 1683 a Turkish army of 300,000 men under the 
Grand Vizier, Kara Mustapha, invaded the Austrian territories and 
besieged Vienna, which must have fallen had not the valiant John 
Sobieski, King of Poland, come to its relief and routed the Turks 
before the city (September 12, 1683). A Holy League vfdiS then 
formed against the Turks by the Pope, the Emperor Leopold L, 
the Republic of Venice, the King of Poland, and the Czar of Russia. 
After Buda had been recovered from the Turks and Hungary re- 
conquered, the Emperor Leopold L forced the Hungarian Diet at 
Presburg to abolish its elective constitution, and made Hungary a 
hereditary possession of the House of Hapsburg (1687). Brilliant 
Austrian victories over the Turks at Mohacz (1687), Salankemen 
(1691), and Zenta (1697) — at the last place by Prince Eugene — 
broke the Turkish power. The Venetians defeated the Turks in 
Greece, while Peter the Great of Russia wrested Azov, on the Black 
Sea, from the Turks. By the Peace of Carlowitz, in 1699, Turkey 
left Hungary, Transylvania, and Slavonia to Austria; Podolia, 
Volhynia, and the Ukraine to Poland, and other territories to 
Venice. From this time the Ottoman Empire rapidly declined, and 
the Turks were no longer formidable to Europe. 

SECTION v.— ENGLAND'S NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 

1. English claims in North America. — London and Plj month Com- 
panies. — ^The English founded their claims to North America upon 
Cabot's discoveries. During Queen Elizabeth's reign, the distin- 
guished Sir Walter Raleigh [rczaZ-Zf] made several unsuccessful 
efforts to colonize North America; and Queen Elizabeth, in con- 
sideration of her unmarried state, named the territory Vitginia. In 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR V. 



241 



1606 King James I. of England granted the territory between the 
Potomac and Cape Fear rivers, under the name of Sou/k Virginia, 
to an association in London, known as the London Company. At 
the same time the king granted the territory now known as New 
England, under the name of North Virginia, to a company in the 
West of England, called the Plymouth Company. 

2. Virg-iuia (1607-1776). — Neg-i'o Slavery. — Indian lyars. — Bacon's 
Rebellion. — In 1607 a band of English emigrants sent to Virginia 
by the London Company sailed up the river which they named 
James, in honor of King James I., and founded Jamestown — the 
first permanent English settlement in America. The colonists 
suffered greatly from hunger, cold, and disease; and were only pre- 
vented from leaving the country by the exertions of Captain John 
Smith, the real leader of the colony. When Captain Smith returned 
to England in 1610, the "Starving Time" so reduced the number 
of the settlers that the remainder were about to abandon Virginia, 
when Lord Delaware arrived with fresh emigrants and supplies. 
The first legislative assembly in America met at Jamestown, June 
28, 1619; and representative government was established. Li 
1620 the first white women were brought to Virginia; and in 
the same year a Dutch trading vessel landed at Jamestown and sold 
twenty negroes as slaves to the planters, this being the beginning of 
negro-slavery in the United States. In 1624 King James I. dis- 
solved the London Company and made Virginia a royal province. 
The Indians waged two bloody wars against the Virginians (1622 
and 1644) and massacred many of the settlers, who each time sub- 
dued the Indians and took a bloody revenge. The famous Sir 
William Berkeley — who was the royal governor of Virginia from. 
1641 to 1678 — ruled in the most arbitrary and despotic manner;, 
and in 1676 his tyranny caused a popular insurrection, headed by 
Nathaniel Bacon, who defeated the governor and destroyed James-- 
town ; but Bacon' s Rebellion was soon quelled, and the rebels were 
severely punished by the tyrannical governor. 

3. Massachusetts (1620-1776).— Pilgrim Fathers. — King Philip's 
War. — Salem Witchcraft. — Andi'os. — In 1614 Captain John Smith, 
the Virginia pioneer, explored the territory of North Virginia, and 
named the region New England. In 1620 a body of English Puri- 
tans — called the Pilgrim Fathers — who several years before had left 
England on account of religious persecution and settled in Holland, 
returned to England and sailed in a vessel called the Mayflower to 
the wilds of America, where they might worship God in their own 

16 



242 MODERN HI ST OR V. 

way. They landed on the bleak coast of Massachusetts bay, De- 
cember 2 2, 1620; and founded Plymouth — the first permanent set- 
tlement in New England. They had framed a constitution before 
landing, and elected John Carver for governor; and Massasoit, the 
Wampano'ag sachem, made a treaty of friendship with the settlers 
which remained unbroken for fifty years; but sickness carried many 
of the settlers to their graves. In 1628 another band of English 
Puritans under John Endicott founded Salem, and in 1630 Governor 
John Winthrop and other Puritan emigrants settled Boston. Other 
Puritan settlements were Charlestown, Cambridge, Dorchester, Rox- 
bury, and Lynn. In 1634 representative government was estab- 
lished in both the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies. 
Massachusetts was torn by religious dissensions; and in 1635 Roger 
Williams was banished from the colony for heretical opinions, and 
in 1638 Mrs. Ann Hutchinson and the Rev. John Wheelwright 
were banished for the same reason. In 1643 the colonies of Ply- 
mouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven formed 
a confederacy called T/ie United Colonies of Netv England. In 
1652 Maine was annexed to Massachusetts; and in 1656 there was 
a great persecution of Quakers in Boston. In 1675 the Wampanoag 
Indians under Metacomet — known as King Philip (the son and suc- 
cessor of Massasoit) — began a fierce war by attacking the whites at 
Swanzy (Sunday, July 4, 1675); t)ut after a bloody struggle the 
Indians were subdued the following year (1676), and their power 
was utterly broken, King Philip himself being captured and shot by 
a faithless Indian, and his wife and son being sold into slavery. In 
1687 King James II. made the tyrant. Sir Edmund Andros, Gov- 
ernor-General of all New-England ; but when news arrived that 
James had been dethroned in England in 1688, the people of Bos- 
ton seized and imprisoned Andros, and sent him to England on a 
charge of maladministration in office. In 1692 the delusion known 
as the Salem Witchcrafi afflicted the people of Massachusetts, and 
many persons were whipped, imprisoned, and hanged for witchcraft, 
but the delusion finally passed away. In 1692 King William III. 
united the colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Maine, and 
New Brunswick as one royal province, under the name of Massa- 
chusetts Bay. 

4. New York (1623-1776). — Settled by the Dutcli and conquered by 
the Eiig-lish. — In 1609 Henry Hudson, an English navigator in the 
service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the Hudson 
river, so named in his honor, and sailed up the stream to the site 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR V. 



243 



of Albany ; in consequence of which the Dutch claimed the terri- 
tory and named it New Netherlands. In 1623 Dutch settlers — sent 
out by the newly-organized Dutch West India Company — founded 
New Amsterdam (now New York City) and Fort Orange (now 
Albany). New Netherlands prospered wonderfully under its four 
Dutch governors — Peter Minuit, Wouter Van Twiller, Sir William 
Kieft, and the able and energetic Peter Stuy'vesant. Upon coming 
into office in 1647, Governor Stuyvesant ended a bloody Indian 
war begun two years earlier, by a just and fair policy toward the 
Indians; and in 1655 he conquered the Swedes on the Delaware, 
and annexed New Sweden to New Netherlands. In 1664 King 
Charles II. of England granted the territory of New Netherlands to 
his brother James, Duke of York and Albany; and an English 
expedition under Colonel Richard Nichols captured New Amster- 
dam, which has since been called New York, and New Netherlands 
became an English province under the name oi New York, while 
Fort Orange has since been called Albany. Colonel Nichols, as 
governor, and his successors, ruled as tyrants; and in 1673 New 
York was captured by a Dutch fleet, but was restored to the Eng- 
lish the next year (1674). The Duke of York gave the colonists a 
Charter of Liberties in 16S3 ; but when he became King James II. 
of England in 1685 he withdrew this charter and deprived the peo- 
ple of their privileges. In 1691 the sturdy republican, Jacob Leisler 
(whom the people had chosen governor), and his son-in-law. Mil- 
borne, were hanged for treason ; and for a long time New York was 
oppressed by tyrannical royal governors. 

5. New Hampshii-e (1623-1776). — In 1622 the territory between 
the Merrimac and Piscataqua rivers was granted to John Mason and 
Sir Ferdinand Gorges ; and the region was first named Laconia, 
and afterward New Hampshire. In 1623 English emigrants settled 
Dover and Portsmouth, and in 1638 the Rev. John Wheelwright, 
an exile from Massachusetts, founded Exeter. In 1641 New Hamp- 
shire was united with Massachusetts, but in 1679 it became a separate 
royal province. 

6. Maryland (1634-1776). — Lord Baltimore. — Toleration Act. — 
Civil war. — In 1633 Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, an English 
Roman Catholic nobleman, obtained from King Charles I. a grant 
of the territory on both sides of Chesapeake bay, under the name 
of Maryland, as a place of refuge for persecuted Roman Catholics. 
In 1634 a company of English Roman Catholics, with Leonard 
Calvert, Cecil's brother, as governor, settled at St. Mary's. Wil- 



244 MODERN HIS TOR V. 

liam Clayborne disputed Lord Baltimore's authority, and rebelled 
twice (1635 and 1645), but was subdued each time. The colony also 
suffered from an Indian war in 1642. Under the liberal policy of 
Lord Baltimore, Christians of all sects were welcomed to the new 
province; and in 1649 the Maryland Assembly passed a Toleration 
Act, which caused so great an influx of Protestants that they soon 
obtained a majority in the Assembly, and, with the basest ingrati- 
tude, they proceeded to disfranchise and outlaw the Catholics ; 
whereupon a civil war ensued, ending in the triumph of the Protest- 
ants; but Lord Baltimore's rights were afterwards restored. In 
1 69 1 King William III. made Maryland a royal province, but in 
1 715 proprietary government was restored. 

7. Connecticut (1635-1776). — Peqiiod War. — Andros and the Con- 
necticut charter. — Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator, discovered the 
Connecticut river in 161 4. Lord Say and Seal, Lord Brooke, and 
others, obtained a grant of the soil of Connecticut in 1634; and in 
1635 Puritans from Massachusetts Bay settled Windsor, Wethers- 
field, and Saybrook. In 1637 the Rev. Thomas Hooker founded 
Hartford; and in 1638 the Rev. John Davenport founded New 
Haven, and the colonists resolved to be governed by the rules and 
principles of the Bible. In 1637 the Connecticut settlers were in- 
volved in a bloody war with the Pequod Indians, which ended in the 
destruction of that tribe. In 1639 the settlers of Connecticut framed 
a liberal constitution; and in 1665 all the Connecticut colonies 
were united under a charter granted by King Charles II. in 1662. 
In 1687, Sir Edmund Andros, whom King James II. had appointed 
Governor-General of all New England, attempted to seize the Con- 
necticut charter during a night-session of the Assembly at Hartford ; 
but the lights were extinguished, and the charter was secretly car- 
ried off and concealed in the famous Charter Oak until after the 
governor had departed. 

8. Rhode Island (1636-1776).— In 1636 Roger Williams, a Puritan 
preacher, having been banished from Massachusetts Bay, travelled 
through the wilderness, and founded Providence, which became an 
asylum for those persecuted for religious opmion in other colonies. 
William Coddington and others, who had been banished from Mas- 
sachusetts Bay, founded Portsmouth in 1638, and Newport in 1639. 
Roger Williams obtained a liberal charter for Rhode Island from 
the Long Parliament in 1644; and King Charles II. granted another 
charter in 1663, which secured to the colonists civil and religious 
liberty. 



S£ VENTEENTH CENTUR V. 



245 



9. Delaware (1638-1776). — The present Delaware was settled by 

Swedes under the auspices of the Swedish West India Company; 
the chief settlement being made on the site of Wilmington in 1638, 
and the territory being called JVew Sweden. In 1655 the Swedish 
settlements were conquered by the Dutch of New Netherlands, and 
New Sweden disappeared by annexation to New Netherlands; but 
when New Netherlands was conquered by the English in 1664 the 
Swedish settlements came under English rule, and were included in 
William Penn's grant. Delaware was finally separated from Penn- 
sylvania in 1702, and both colonies thereafter had separate legisla- 
tures, but both were under the same governor until 1776. 

10. New Jersey (1664-1776).— The Duke of York granted the 
territory between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to Lord Berkeley 
and Sir George Carteret, under the name of Nnu Jersey ; and the 
first regular settlement in the province was made by English Puri- 
tans at Elizabeth in 1664. The province became rapidly peopled 
by English Quakers, who finally bought East Jersey from Lord 
Berkeley in 1676, and West Jersey from Carteret's heirs in 16S2; 
but in 1702 East and West Jersey were again united as one royal 
province, and placed under the authority of the governor of New 
York, but in 1738 New Jersey obtained a governor of its own. 

11. North and South Carolina (1665-1776). — Grand Model. — Indian 
wars. — In 1663 King Charles II. of England granted the territory 
south of Virginia to the Earl of Clarendon and others, and the 
grant was named Carolina. In 1665 an English colony from the 
Barbadoes Islands settled at Edenton, where the first legislative 
assembly in North Carolina met in 1668. In 1670 English emi- 
grants settled near the site of Charleston, and in 1680 Charleston 
was founded. The Carolinas increased rapidly in population. 
English and Germans settled in North Carolina; and English Puri- 
tans and Quakers, French Huguenots, Scotch Presbyterians, Irish, 
Hollanders, and others, settled in South Carolina. The proprietors 
of the Carolinas sought to force an aristocratic constitution, called 
the Grand Model, upon the colonists, thus causing several rebel- 
lions in both North and South Carolina; but the proprietors were 
obliged to abandon their scheme and allow the colonists a more 
republican system. The infamous Seth Sothel, who was tyrannical 
and corrupt, was governor successively of both North and South 
Carolina, but was banished from each province by the outraged 
people. The good Quaker, John Ajchdale, was the best of the 
governors of the Carolinas. In 1711 the Tuscaroras and other 



2.6 MODERN HISTORY. 

1 

Indian tribes massacred the German settlers of North Carolina, but 

the Indians were soon defeated, and captured or driven away. In 

J 7 15 the Yamasee Indians destroyed the frontier settlements of 

South Carolina, but the Yamasees were soon defeated and driven 

into Florida. The Carolinas had to contend against French and 

Spanish attacks early in the eighteenth century. In 1729 both 

North and South Carolina became separate royal provinces. 

12. Pennsylvania (1682-1776). — William Pena's Treaty with the 
Indians. — The territory west of the Delaware was granted by Charles 
II. to William Penn, an eminent English Quaker; and the province 
was named Pennsylvania (meaning Fenn^s woods). A Quaker col- 
ony under Penn's auspices settled Chester in 16S1 ; and in 1682 
Penn himself founded Philadelphia (meaning city of brotherly love). 
Penn gave the colonists a popular legislative assembly and a Charter 
of Liberties. His just and humane policy toward the Indians, with 
whom he made a treaty of friendship under a large elm occupying 
a spot on the site of Philadelphia, secured their love and esteem, 
and kept the colony free from Indian, wars for three-quarters of a 
century. Early in the eighteenth century there was a large emigra- 
tion of Germans and Swiss into Pennsylvania ; and their descendants 
still retain the prominent characteristics of their thrifty ancestors. 
Pennsylvania was owned by Penn's heirs until 1776, when their 
claims were purchased by the colonists. Jeremiah Mason and 
George Dixon — surveyors appointed by the King of Great Britain — 
established Mason^s and Dixon^ s Line in 1767. 

13. Georgia (1733-1776). — Georgia was not settled until the 
eighteenth century. A number of English philanthropists, headed 
by James Edward Oglethorpe, in order to secure an asylum for vir- 
tuous prisoners for debt and other poor of the English realm, 
obtained from King George II. a grant of the territory between the 
Carolinas and Florida, and named the territory Georgia, in honor 
of the king. A band of poor emigrants under Oglethorpe founded 
Savannah in 1733. The Georgians engaged in hostilities with the 
Spaniards of Florida. The new colony increased in population; 
negro-slavery was introduced ; and in 1752 Georgia became a royal 
province. 

14. French colonies in North ^Vnierica. — Ang'lo-French colonial 
•wars. — While the English were colonizing the Atlantic coast of 
North America during the seventeenth century, the French were 
exploring and settling Canada and the great Mississippi Valley. 
The French claims to the St. Lawrence basin were founded upon 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



247 



the discoveries made by Verrazzani and Cartier in the sixteenth cen- 
tury. In 1605 De Monts \deh-mdng''\, a Huguenot, founded Port 
Royal, in Acadia (now Nova Scotia) — the first permanent French 
settlement in America; and in 1.608 Samuel Champlain founded 
Quebec, in Canada, and in 1609 he discovered the beautiful 
lake which bears his name — Champlain. In 1673 Louis Joliet 
\loo-e zho-le-a!~\ and Jacques Marquette \zhak mar-ket''\ explored the 
Mississippi; and in 1682 Robert de la Salle \_ro-l)ai/ deh-la-sal''] 
also explored the Mississippi, and naming the entire Mississippi 
Valley Louisiana, \n honor of King Louis XIV., claimed that ex- 
tensive region for France. The principal settlement in the Missis- 
sippi Valley was New Orleans, founded in 1 718. During the wars 
between England and France at this period, the English and French 
colonists in North America became engaged in hostilities. During 
King William' s War (1689-169 7) the French and Indians com- 
mitted dreadful massacres upon the New England and New York 
frontiers, destroying Dover, in New Hampshire, in July, 1689, and 
Schenectady \ske-ne}^ -ta-de\., in New York, in February, 1690; and 
the New Englanders sent unsuccessful expeditions against Quebec 
and Montreal in 1690. During Queen Anne's fFar (1702-1713) 
the French and Indians destroyed Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 
1702; but in 1710 an English and New England fleet captured 
Port Royal, which was thereafter called Annapolis, and Acadia 
became a British province under the name of Nova Scotia (New 
Scotland); but in 1711 an English and New England fleet sent 
against Quebec was wrecked at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and 
1,000 men perished. During King George" s War (i 744-1 748) the 
English captured Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton (1745); 
and the great French and Indian ^^r (1754-1763) ended in the 
conquest of the French possessions in North America by the Eng- 
lish. During this last war the Indian allies of the French ravaged 
the English frontier settlements; and in 1763 the famous Ottowa 
chief, Pontiac, secretly leagued the Western tribes against the 
English and seized most of the Eqglish military posts, but Pontiac'' s 
War soon ended in the subjugation of the Indians, and Pontiac 
was killed by an Illinois Indian on the Mississippi river in 1765; 
while in 1761 the Cherokee Indians of Georgia were subdued by 
Colonel Grant. 

15. Nationalities aiuong' the Aiiglo-American colonies. — England's 
thirteen colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America rapidly 
increased in population. The great body of the colonists were of 



248 MODERN HIS TO R Y. 

English descent, though there was a mixture of different European 
nationalities. The New England colonies, and Maryland and 
Virginia, were wholly English. The people of New York and New 
Jersefy were English and Dutch; those of Pennsylvania, English, 
Scotch-Irish, Welsh, German, and Swiss; those of Delaware, Eng- 
lish and Swedish ; those of the Carolinas, English, Dutch, Germans, 
and Scotch-Irish ; and those of Georgia, English and Scotch-Irish. 

16. EeligioBS classification of tlie Anglo-American colonists. — Most 
of the colonists of New England, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Dela- 
ware, Maryland, and many in the Carolinas, as we have seen, were 
religious exiles, who settled in the New World to seek a refuge from 
religious persecution. The Puritans of Massachusetts, who sought 
refuge in America against religious persecution, themselves perse- 
cuted those who did not agree with them. They were remarkable 
for their austerity. Their laws and customs were rigid, and frivo- 
lous amusements were not tolerated ; while education was fostered, 
and habits of reading were encouraged. The people of New Eng- 
land were Puritans; the Church of England prevailed in New York, 
Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia ; the Quakers were 
chiefly found in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware ; and the 
Roman Catholics were most numerous in Maryland. 

17. Three forms of g-ovcrnmeut among- the Anglo-American colonists. 
— Three forms of government prevailed among the Anglo-American 
colonists — charter, proprietary, and royal. The charter govern- 
ments gave the supreme power to the people, who elected their 
governors, as well as their legislative assemblies. The proprietary 
colonies were owned by individuals, or companies, who appointed 
the governors, but allowed the people to elect their legislative 
assemblies. The royal provinces w^ere owned and controlled wholly 
by the king, who appointed the governors, but allowed the people 
to choose their own legislative assemblies. It will thus be seen that 
all the colonies had their popular legislative assemblies. At the 
opening of the American Revolution in 1775, the charter govern- 
ments existed in Rhode Island and Connecticut ; the proprietary 
colonies were Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland ; all the rest 
of the colonies were royal provinces. 

18. Literual and external difficulties of the Anglo-American colonies. 
— Most of the colonies had to contend against Indian hostilities, 
and most of the colonists in all the provinces resisted every royal 
and proprietary encroachment upon their rights. Religious and 
civil dissensions at times disturbed some of them, as in the case of 



S£ VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 249 

Massachusetts, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. New Eng- 
land and New York had to contend against the hostilities of the 
French from Canada, while the Carolinas and Georgia had to con- 
front the Spaniards of Florida. 

19. Boud of imion anions the Anglo-American colonists. — Their 
prog"i-ess. — Though the colonists were of different European nation- 
alities, a common bond of interests knit all the colonies together; 
their democratic institutions tended to educate them for self-govern- 
ment; the colonists were actuated by a common desire for the 
greatest civil, political, and religious freedom ; and all the colonies 
were semi-republican and semi-independent from the beginning. 
Negro-slavery became firmly established in the Southern colonies. 
The colonists, whose pursuits were chiefly agricultural, prospered 
wonderfully ; and when the American Revolution broke out in 1775, 
the Anglo-American colonies had a population of three millions. 

SECTION VI.— PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION IN THE SEVEN- 
TEENTH CENTURY. 

1. Great results of the Seventeenth Century. — The Reformation 
achieved its final triumph in the Thirty Years' War. The struggle 
in England between the Stuart dynasty and the people as repre- 
sented by the Commons ended in the establishment of the free con- 
stitution of England by "the Glorious Revolution of 1688." The 
supremacy of France during the Age of Louis XIV. established the 
ascendency of the French language, tastes, fashions, manners, and 
habits of thought among the cultivated and intellectual classes 
throughout Europe. The revival of learning and science begun in 
the sixteenth century was continued during the seventeenth, which 
was signalized by great scientific discoveries, improvements in phil- 
osophy, strong literatures, and an improved condition of the masses. 

2. LiductiTe philosophy. — Bacon, Des Cartes, Spinoza, and Hobbes. 
— Francis Bacon (1561-1626) — the great English philosopher, 
known better as Lord Bacon (Viscount St. Albans) — founded the 
inductive system of philosophy, which took the place of Aristotle's 
deductive system, which had prevailed for two thousand years. 

Des Cartes \da-kart''\ (i 596-1 650) — the great French philoso- 
pher — had great influence on the method of philosophizing in the 
seventeenth century. 

Spinoza (1622-1677) — a Jew of Holland and likewise a great 
philosopher — carried forward the new system of philosophy founded 
by Bacon and Des Cartes. 



25 o MODERN IIISTOR V. 

Thomas Hobbes (15 88-16 79) — a famous English philospher— 
was early associated with Galileo and Des Cartes, and his principal 
works are the Leviathan and Behemoth. 

John Locke [1632-1704) — a celebrated English philosopher — • 
wrote an Essay on the Human Understanding. 

3. Astronomy and Mathematics. — Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and 
Leibnitz. — Galileo (1564-1642) — the distinguished Italian astrono- 
mer — adopted the Copernican theory of the solar system and 
invented the telescope, with the aid of which he discovered the 
satellites of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and the moonlike phases 
of Venus. He was twice brought before the Inquisition to renounce 
the theory of the earth's rotation which he published in his System 
of the World. His second incarceration brought on an affection 
of the eyes terminating in blindness. 

Kepler (15 71-1630) — the eminent German astronomer, called 
"the legislator of the heavens" — discovered what are known as 
Kepler'' s Three Laws, which laid the foundations of mathematical 
astronomy. Kepler was one of the greatest thinkers of any age. 
He combined the inspiration of a prophet and the creative genius 
of a poet with the method of a mathematician. Persecuted by 
religious bigots, he led a melancholy life in the most abject poverty. 

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-17 2 7) — the illustrious English astrono- 
mer, mathematician, and philosopher, who was then professor of 
mathematics at Cambridge university — discovered the law of uni- 
versal gravitation, by which the earth and all the heavenly bodies 
are kept in their respective places. Newton's theory of light and 
colors is the foundation of the science of optics; and his Latin work, 
Pnneipia, is the basis of all natural philosophy, or physics. New- 
ton also discovered that important instrument of mathematics, the 
Calculus. 

Leibnitz (1640-1716) — an eminent German philospher, meta- 
physician, mathematician, historian, jurist and scholar — was the 
founder of the eclectic system of German philosophy, and discov- 
ered tlie Calculus about the same time as Newton. 

4. Other great scientific discoveries. — Scientific societies. — Besides 
the great scientific discoveries by Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and 
Leibnitz — the four great scientific lights during the seventeenth cen- 
tury — there were numerous other discoveries in mathematics, astron- 
omy, and natural science. Lord Napier (1550-1617) — a Scotch- 
man — invented logarithms, thus abridging calculation. William 
Harvey (1578-1657) — a great English physician and surgeon— 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 25 1 

discovered the circulation of the blood, which he first announced 
in 1613, and published in 1628. The Italian, Torrecelli (160S- 
1647), of Florence, invented the mercurial barometer, the basis of 
hydraulics. Roemer \_ra'-mer\ (i 644-1 710), a Dane, invented the 
thermometer bearing his name. Otte Guericke \_gcr-e' -ke\ (1602- 
1686), a German, invented the air-pump. The German chemist, 
Brandt, accidentally discovered phosphorus in 1669. Robert 
Boyle (1627-1691) — a famous Irish-English philosopher, noted for 
his piety — also made chemical discoveries. Huyghens (i 629-1 695) 
— a Dutch astronomer — discovered Saturn's rings and one of her 
satellites. Cassini (1625-17 12) — an Italian astronomer — discov- 
ered four satellites of Saturn. His son, John Cassini, discovered the 
division in Saturn's ring. The renowned English astronomer, Ed- 
mund Halley (1656-1742), made important discoveries highly 
serviceable to navigation, and discovered the comet bearing his 
name. The English Royal Society incorporated by Charles II., the 
French Academy of Sciences instituted by Louis XIV., and similar 
institutions in other European countries, advanced physics and 
chemistry. 

5. French Literature of the Age of Louis XIV. — The Age of Louis 
XIV. — the Augustan Age of French Literature — shone resplendent 
with the names of great dramatists, satirists, and divines. 

The Three Great Dramatists. 

Corneille ( 1 606-1 684) — a great dramatist — excelled in tragedy, 
as The Cid. 

Racine (1639-1699) — the greatest French dramatist — was noted 
for his tragedies. 

Moliere (i 622-1 673) — also a great dramatist — surpassed in 
comedy. 

Other Great Writers. 

Pascal (i 623-1 662) — a great philosopher and scientist — wrote 
against the Jesuits in his Provincial Letters. 

La Rochefaucauld \lah-rdsH fo-ko'\ (1613-1680) was noted for 
his Moral Maxims. 

La Fontaine (1621-1705) — the "modern ^sop" — was cele- 
brated for his Fables. 

Fenelon (1651-1715) — Archbishop of Cambray — was celebrated 
for his romance, Telemaque. 

Fleury (1642-1723) — a church historian — wrote Histoire Eccle- 
siastique. 



3^2 MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

Bayle ( 1 647-1 706) was a celebrated Huguenot writer. 
BoiLEAU \_bwah-lo''\ (163 7-1 711) was a great critic and satirical 
poet. 

The Three Great Preachers. 

BossuET \_bos-szua''\ (1627-1704) — Bishop of Meaux — was a great 
preacher. 

BouRDALOUE \_boo?'-da-loo''\ (1632-1704) was also a famous pulpit 
orator. 

Massillon \^!/ias-seel-ydf!g''] (1663-1742) was likewise renowned 
for pulpit eloquence. 

6. English Literatiu-e. — Ben Jonson, Milton, Bimyan, and Dryden. 
— In English literature we find many dramatists who were cotempo- 
raries and successors of Shakespeare, who died in 1616. 

Dramatic Poets. 

Ben Jonson (15 74-1 637) — poet-laureate under James I. — was 
the greatest dramatist after Shakespeare. 

Other great dramatic poets were Francis Beaumont \bo-mont''\ 
(15S5-1615 ) and John Fletcher (1576-1625), who were associated 
in their writings; and Philip Massinger (1584-1640). 

Other Poets. 

John Milton (1608-1674) — the great epic poet of England — 
who had been Oliver Cromwell's foreign secretary, wrote Paradise 
Lost and Paradise Regained, in poverty and blindness, after the 
Stuart Restoration in 1660. 

Samuel Butler (16 12-1680) wrote Hudibras, a satirical poem 
on the Puritans. 

John Dryden (1631-1700) — poet-laureate under Charles II. — 
wrote dramas and satirical poems, and translated Virgil's ^neid. 

Other Writers. 

John Bunyan (1628-1688) — a tinker of Bedford and a Baptist 
preacher — was imprisoned twelve years for preaching, during which 
he wrote Pilgrim s Progress, the most famous allegory in the Eng- 
lish language, and which has been translated into all languages. 

Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) — a great divine and theologian — 
wrote such works as Liberty of Propliesying, Holy Living, and Holy 
Dying. 

Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon (1608- 16 73) — the great 
statesman and Prime Minister of Charles II. — described the civil war 
between Charles I. and Parliament in his History of the Rebellion. 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR V. ^53 

Sir Matthew Hale (i 609-1 676) was a famous English jurist 
and writer. 

7. Spanish Literature. — Spain produced two great dramatic poets 
during the seventeenth century. 

Lope de Vega (1562-1635) wrote a thousand dramas. 
Calderon (1600-1685) wrote about five hundred dramas. 

8. Flemish Art. — The three greatest artists of the seventeenth cen- 
tury were natives of the Netherlands. 

Peter Paul Rubens (15 7 7-1 640) — the most celebrated of the 
Flemish painters — flourished at Antwerp, and painted four thousand 
pictures, of which the most noted were the Descent from the Cross, 
the Last Judgment, and Peace and War. 

Vandyke (1599-1641) — a pupil of Rubens and a great portrait 
painter — was a native of Antwerp, but spent most of his life in Eng- 
land, where he painted the portraits of Charles I. and Strafford, and 
a historical painting, The Crucifixion. 

Rembrandt (1606-1669) — a native of Leyden — was the third 
great painter of the Flemish school. 

9. French, Spanish, Italian, and Eng^lish Art. — Poussin \^poo-sang''\ 
(1594-1655) was a famous French painter, whose chief paintings 
are the Death of Germanicus, the Taking of Jerusaleiti, and the 
Last Supper. 

Claude Lorraine (1600-1682) and Lebrun (1619-1690) were 
also celebrated French painters. 

MuRiLLO (1618-16S2) — the great Spanish painter — painted scenes 
of humble life and religious pieces, such as Aladonnas , holy families, 
and others; and died from the effects of a severe fall while painting 
the interior of a church. 

Velasquez \j.'a-las' -kaith'\ (i 599-1 660) was also a great Spanish 
painter. 

Salvator Rosa (1615-1673) was a famous Italian pamter and 
poet. 

Inigo Jones (1596-1652) and Sir Christopher Wren (1632- 
1723) were great English architects; the latter being the architect 
of St. Paul's Cathedral in London, the largest Protestant church in 
the world. 

10. Rise of the Quakers in Eng-land and the Jansenists in France. — 

About the time of the civil wars in England, George Fox founded 
the sect of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, whose simple man- 
ners and piety subjected them to great persecution and ridicule. In 



254 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



France, during the Age of Louis XIV., arose the j/^ansenists — so 
called from their founder, Jansen — who were bitter enemies of the 
Jesuits. 

CHAPTER III. 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

SECTION I.— WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (1702-1714). 

1. The Spanisli Succession. — Coalition ag-ainst Louis XIT. — After 
the death of the childless Charles II. of Spain (1666-1700) — the 
last of the Spanish Hapsburgs — Southern and Western Europe be- 
came involved in the great War of the Spanish Succession, caused 
by the conflicting claims of Duke Philip of Anjou, grandson of 
King Louis XIV. of France, and the Archduke Charles of Austria, 
brother of the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany, to the crown of 
Spain. Both claimants were the first cousins, and both were the 
brothers-in-law, of the late King of Spain, who had first willed his 
kingdom to the Archduke Charles, but was afterwards bribed with 
the French king's gold to bequeath his crown to Philip of Anjou. 
England — exasperated at Louis XIV. for recognizing the son of 
James II. as King of England just before King William's death and 
Queen Anne's accession in 1702 — united in a coalition with Hol- 
land, the Emperor Leopold L, and the newly-founded kingdom of 
Prussia, against the King of France and his ally, the Elector of Bava- 
ria. Spain was divided; Castile siding with Philip'of Anjou, and 
Aragon with the Archduke Charles. Portugal afterward partici- 
pated in the war on the side of the Archduke Charles. When 
Philip of Anjou started for Madrid, Louis XIV. said to him : 
** There are no more Pyrenees." In his former wars Louis XIV. 
was generally successful; but in this war his armies were repeatedly 
defeated by two great generals — the Duke of Marlborough (John 
Churchill), one of England's greatest generals, and Prince Eugene 
of Savoy, a Frenchman by birth, who had gained renown in the 
Emperor's service against the Turks. During this war the Emperor 
Leopold I. was engaged in a struggle with his rebellious Hungarian 
subjects under Prince Ragotzy, who resisted the imperialists from 
1703 to 1 71 1. In 1703 religious persecution drove the Protestants 
of the region of the Cevennes \je-ve7i^ to rebellion against the 
French king, and order was only restored after the royal troops had 
suffered many defeats. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. .355 

2. Battle of Blenheim. — The war opened vigorously in 1702 in 
Spain, Italy, Germany, and the Spanish Netherlands ; but nothing 
decisive was accomplished until 1 704, when the English army under 
the famous Duke of Marlborough advanced into Germany to the 
aid of the imperial army under Prince Eugene ; and the united 
armies, 80,000 strong, annihilated an army of 80,000 French and 
Bavarians at the little village of Blenheim, in Bavaria (August 13, 
1704); the French and Bavarians losing 40,000 men, and all their 
artillery and camp-equipage. The French fled beyond the Rhine, 
and their ally, the outlawed Elector of Bavaria, sought refuge be- 
yond his dominions. 

3. Success of the allies iu Spain. — Capture of Gibraltar hy the Eng- 
lish. — In the meantime the allied English, Dutch, Portuguese, and 
Austrian forces made great progress in Spain against the French and 
Spaniards. An English fleet under Admiral Rooke took Gibraltar 
from the Spaniards (August 4, 1704), and that strong fortress has 
ever since remained in England's possession. In October, 1705, 
an English army under the Earl of Peterborough took Barcelona; 
and in 1706 the allied army under Lord Galway took possession of 
Madrid. 

4. Battles of Raniillies and Turin. — The Duke of Marlborough, 
having in the meantime returned to the Spanish Netherlands, won 
a decisive victory over the French under Marshal Villeroi \T.'eel-yer- 
waiif] at Ramillies \ratn-il-lee^'\ (May 23, 1706); thus depriving 
the French of most of their acquisitions in the Spanish Netherlands. 
In Italy the French under the skillful Duke of Vendome had de- 
feated Prince Eugene at Cassan'o in 1705 ; but the, French having 
laid siege to Turin in 1706, were so completely defeated before that 
place by Prince Eugene (September 7, 1706) that they fled from 
Italy. 

5. Louis XIV. humiliated. — Battle of Almanza. — Humiliated by 
his reverses, Louis XIV. offered to abandon the whole Spanish in- 
heritance, except the Italian possessions, to the Archduke Charles ; 
but the allies demanded all, and so the war continued. Fortune 
now smiled on the French arms in Spain. Philip of Anjou entered 
Madrid in triumph ; and the allied English, Dutch, and Portuguese 
army was annihilated in the decisive battle of Alman'za (April 25, 
1707), which established Philip of Anjou on the throne of Spain, 
and somewhat revived the drooping spirits of the French. In the 
same year Prince Eugene failed in the siege of Toulon \too-lon^\ 



256 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



6. Battles of Oiulenarde and Malplaquet. — The Duke of Marlbor- 
ough and Prince Eugene increased their renown by a brilliant vic- 
tor}- in the Spanish Netherlands, defeating the French under the 
Dukes of Vendome and Burgundy at Oudenarde \ood-nard''\ (July 
II, 1708); and by the capture of Lille \_/eel'\ soon afterward, the 
Avay to Paris stood open to the allies. In addition to her military 
reverses, France at this time was beginning to suffer from famine, 
caused by the severity of the winter of ijoS-'p, which froze the 
vineyards, orchards, and the grain already sown. Whole families 
of poor were frozen to death, and Louis was obliged to heed the 
outcry of his subjects for peace ; but the haughty demands of the 
allies caused the French to support their king in continuing the war. 
The Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene won another victory 
in the Spanish Netherlands, defeating the French under Marshals 
Villars \7'ee/'-yar] and Boufflers \_b 00' -flair'] at Malplaquet [nial- 
pla-ka'] (September 11, 1709). 

7. Insulting demand of tlie allies. — The many disasters to the 
French arms had reduced France to the brink of ruin, and Louis 
XIV. again solicited peace, even offering to advance money to the 
allies against Philip of Anjou ; but the haughty and insulting condi- 
tions of the allies, who demanded that Louis himself should assist in 
driving his grandson from the throne of Spain, so exasperated the 
French king and people that the war continued. To this insulting 
demand, Louis replied: " If I must continue the war. I had rather 
fight my enemies than my grandson." 

8. French victories in Spain. — In 1710 the drooping spirits of 
Louis XIV. were somewhat revived by several brilliant victories of 
his arms in Spain. The French under the Duke of Vendome cap- 
tured an English corps under Stanhope after a severe battle at 
Brihuega \^bre-%vhe' -ya\. Several days later, the Duke of Vendome 
defeated the Austrians under Count Stahremberg at Villaviciosa, 
after a bloody battle of two days (December 10, 1710). 

9. Chang-e in the attihide of the different powers.— Cliange of Minis- 
try in Eng-land. — The accession of the Archduke Charles to the 
hereditary Austrian territories, and to the imperial throne of Ger- 
many, in 1 711, upon the death of the Emperor Joseph I. (who had 
succeeded Leopold I. in 1705), changed the situation of all parties; 
as the different powers of Europe were as averse to a union of the 
crowns of Spain and Austria under a prince of the House of Haps- 
burg, as to the union of the crowns of Spain and France under a 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



^57 



prince of the House of Bourbon. At the same time the expulsion 
of the Whigs from power in England, and the accession of a Tory 
Ministry under Lords Oxford and Bolingbroke, who opposed the 
war, facilitated the restoration of peace, and brought about the dis- 
grace of the Duke of Marlborough, the chief of the Whigs, and 
who being accused of avarice and corruption, was removed from his 
command. 

10. Peace of Utrecht. — Peace of Rastadt. — As early as January, 
1 71 2, conferences for peace were opened at Utretcht, in Holland, 
through the influence of England under her Tory Ministers. 
Finally, April 11, 1713, the famous Peace of Utrecht was signed by 
the plenipotentiaries of England and France ; and Holland soon 
afterward agreed to a treaty with France. By the Peace of Utrecht, 
England received Gibraltar from Spain, and Nova Scotia and the 
Hudson's Bay Territory from France ; while England recognized the 
title of Philip of Anjou to the throne of Spain. The war between 
France and the German Empire was closed by the Peace of Rastadt 
(March 7, 1714), by which the House of Austria received the 
Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sicily, which were thus 
separated from the dominion of Spain; and it was agreed that the 
crowns of France and Spain should never be united. By these 
treaties the new kingdom of Prussia — whose first king was Frederick 
I. (1701-1713), son of Frederick William, the Great Elector of 
Brandenburg (1640-1688) — was recognized as one of the European 
powers. Louis XIV. — whose mad ambition had almost ruined 
France — died in September, 1715 ; and as all his children and 
grandchildren had died before him, he was succeeded by his great- 
grandson, Louis XV., during whose minority the wicked Duke of 
Orleans acted as regent of France, and the wicked Cardinal Dubois 
\du-bwaii'~\ was Prime Minister. 

SECTION IL— PETER THE GREAT OF RUSSIA AND CHARLES XII. 
OF SWEDEN IN THE NORTHERN WAR (1700-1721). 

1. Coalition against Charles XII. of Sweden. — In 1697 Charles XII., 
a youth of fifteen, ascended the throne of Sweden. In 1700 Peter 
the Great of Russia and the Kings of Poland and Denmark united 
in a coalition against Sweden for the purpose of wresting from the 
Swedes a large portion of their territory on the east and south sides 
of the Baltic sea. The young King of Sweden entered upon the 
war with much enthusiasm, determined to thwart the unprincipled 
schemes of his enemies, who invaded the Swedish dominions at 
17 



258 MODERN HIS TORY. 

different points simultaneously in 1700. Thus arose the famous 
Northern War, which convulsed the North and East of Europe for 
twenty-one years (i 700-1 721). 

2. Cliai'les XII. liiuubles Deuinark. — To the astonishment of all 
Europe, the young King of Sweden suddenly exhibited military 
talents. Having secured the alliance of England and Holland, 
whose fleets were sent to his assistance, he landed, in 1700, with an 
army upon the island of Zealand, and Copenhagen was only saved 
from the horrors of a bombardment by the payment of a heavy 
ransom; and after a campaign of six weeks, King Frederick IV. of 
Denmark, completely humbled, was forced to accept the Peace of 
Travendal. 

3. Battle of Narya. — Charles XH. next marched with 8,000 men 
against the Czar of Russia, who, with 80,000 men, was then be- 
sieging Narva. Although the Swedish king had but one-tenth as 
many men as his adversary, he did not hesitate to attack the army 
of Peter the Great. Accordingly, after breaking the Russian in- 
trenchments by a heavy cannonade, Charles XII., on November 30, 
1700, ordered a bayonet charge, and in the face of a severe snow- 

■storm, he assailed the Russians, and routed them after a battle of 
'three hours, capturing all their cannon, baggage, and stores, and 
30,000 prisoners. The Czar, undismayed by this reverse, remarked: 
"I knew the Swedes would beat us at first, but they will soon teach 
us to become their conquerors." 

4. Triumphant career of €liarles XII. in Poland and Saxony. — Aftei 
the battle of Narva, Charles XII. of Sweden carried on the war 
against Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland for five years (1701- 
1706), during which he won brilliant victories over the Polish king, 
at Riga \f'e'-gd\ in Courland, in 1701 ; at Clissow, between Warsaw 
and Cracow, in 1702; and at Pultusk, in 1703; entered Warsaw 
several times a conqueror, and in 1704 compelled the Polish Diet 
to dethrone Augustus II. and to elect Stanislaus Leczinski to the 
throne of Poland. The King of Sweden drove Augustus into his 
hereditary dominions of Saxony in 1706; and after frightfully 
ravaging the Saxon territories, Charles XII. compelled Augustus to 
agree to \\\t Peace of Altranstadt (^if<^X.Q\x\htx 24, 1706), on the most 
humiliating terms, Augustus being required to renounce the crown 
of Poland for himself and his posterity, and to dissolve his alliance 
with the Czar of Russia. 

5. Peter's conquests on the Baltic. — Founding- of St. Petersburg. — 
In the mean time, the Czar Peter the Great of Russia was reducing 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



259 



the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Bakic, and annexing 
them to the Russian Empire. Peter took Narva by storm, built the 
fortresses of Schlusselburg and Cronstadt, and caused the islands at 
the mouth of the Neva to be drained by serfs, and there laid the 
foundations of a city which he named St. Petersburg, and which he 
intended should be the capital of the Russian Empire. In 1703 
Peter compelled 300,000 people from Moscow and other Russian 
cities to settle at St. Petersburg. He also encouraged foreigners to 
emigrate thither. Famine and disease soon carried two-thirds of 
the settlers of the new city to their graves, but Peter was not dis- 
couraged. He persevered in his enterprise, and, by his liberal and 
enlightened policy, foreign artisans and merchants were induced to 
emigrate to St. Petersburg. 

6. Invasion of Russia by Charles XII. — After returning to Poland 
in the fall of 1707, Charles XII., with 40,000 men, invaded Russia; 
rejecting all the Czar's proposals for peace with the answer ''I will 
treat at Moscow." Peter the Great retreated before the advance of 
the Swedish king, and devastated the country between Poland and 
Moscow, so that hunger, fatigue, and constant partial actions re- 
duced the Swedish army to great weakness ; and after reaching 
Smolensk, Charles XII. marched southward toward the Ukraine, 
whither he had been invited by Mazeppa, Hetman of the Cossacks, 
who desired to throw off the yoke of the Czar; but the Cossacks 
did not support their chief in his treasonable design, and Mazeppa 
became a fugitive in the Swedish camp. Reinforcements from 
Sweden were annihilated by the Russians, and supplies were be- 
coming scarce ; while the severity of the winter of i7o8-'9 reduced 
the Swedish army to 20,000 men. At one time 2,000 Swedish 
soldiers froze to death before the eyes of their hard-hearted king. 

7. Battle of Piiltowa. — Notwithstanding his misfortunes, the am- 
bitious King of Sweden was still obstinately resolved upon the con- 
quest of Russia. At length Charles XII. laid siege to the strongly- 
fortified town of Pukowa. When the Czar Peter the Great ap- 
proached with 70,000 men for the relief of the garrison, Charles pre- 
pared to meet him; and on July 8, 1709, was fought the great and 
decisive battle of Pukowa, which ended the splendid career of 
Charles XII. of Sweden, the Swedish army being thoroughly anni- 
hilated, after a terrible battle of two hours, with a loss of 8,000 
killed and 6,000 made prisoners. Charles having been wounded 
during the siege, was conveyed about the field in a litter, which 
was shattered to pieces by a cannon-ball. The Czar Peter's hat 



2 6o MODERN- HIS TO R Y. 

was pierced by bullets, and his favorite general, Menschikoff, had 
two horses shot under him. The surrender of 12,000 retreating 
Swedish troops completed the destruction of Charles' army. The 
Swedish soldiers who were made prisoners were dispersed over 
the vast Russian Empire, many perishing in the wilds of Siberia, 
and not one ever returned to Sweden. 

8. Charles XII. in Turkey. — The once-conquering Charles XII. 
now became a helpless fugitive, and with 300 of his guards he fled 
into Turkey, where he met with an honorable reception, living in 
luxury at Bender as the Sultan's guest. Charles finally induced the 
Porte to make war on Russia; and, after a great battle of four days 
in July, 171 1, the Czar was reduced to desperate straits, being un- 
able to advance or retreat ; but Peter's wife, the Empress Catharine 
(who had once been a Swedish peasant girl, and who succeeded her 
husband on the Russian throne), bought a peace with the Turks by 
presenting her jewels to the Grand Vizier. The Sultan now ordered 
the King of Sweden to leave Ottoman territory, but Charles XII. 
resolved to remain, and with his attendants, 300 in number, he 
resisted a Turkisl^ army of 26,000 men; but, after a fierce conflict, 
in which many of his attendants were killed and his house set on 
fire, Charles was made a prisoner. 

9. Renewal of the war and return of Charles Xn. to Sweden. — 
Meanwhile Russia, Poland, and Denmark had renewed the war 
against Sweden, and were joined by Prussia and England. The 
arms of the allies were making rapid progress on the shores of the 
Baltic, and the Swedish Senate resolved to appoint a regent ; where- 
upon Charles returned to Sweden, traveling through Hungary and 
Germany in the disguise of a peasant, and arriving at Stralsund, in 
Swedish Pomerania. After a heroic defense of more than a year, 
Stralsund was taken from the Swedes by the allied Danish, Saxon, 
and Prussian armies, in December, 1715, but Charles escaped to 
Sweden in a boat. 

10. Death of Charles XII. at the sieg-e of Frederikshall. — In 1718 
Charles XII. invaded Norway, which he attempted to wrest from 
the King of Denmark. Having laid siege of Frederikshall, the 
warrior-king — "the Alexander of the North" — met his death while 
reconnoitering the works during a terrible fire from the Danish 
batteries, on the night of December 11, 1718; being struck by a 
stray ball from the enemy, or by a bullet from an assassin. 

11. Peace of Stockliolm. — Peace of Nystadt. — Charles XII. was 
succeeded on the Swedish throne by his sister, Ulrica Eleanora; 



EIGHTEENTH CEM 1 'UR Y. .z&r 

and the Swedish Diet restricted the royal power. By the Peace of 
Stockholm with Poland, Prussia, Denmark, and England, in 1720, 
and \>y X\\t Peace of Nysiadt \\A\\\ Russia in 1721, Sweden surren- 
dered most of her foreign possessions, in return for an indemnifica- 
tion in money. Sweden thus lost her rank as the great power of 
the North ; while Russia, under the great Peter — who received the 
title of Emperor of all the Pussias, and who caused his own son 
Alexis to be put to death for engaging in a plot against the Czar's 
reforms — began to control the destinies of the North and East. 
Peter's immediate successors were his widow, Catharine I. (1725- 
1727); his grandson, Peter II. (i 727-1 730); his niece, Anna (1730- 
1740); and his daughter, Elizabeth (i 740-1 762). 

SECTION III.— EUROPE FROM 1714 to 1740. 

1. rnion of England and Scotland. — House of Brunswick. — Jacobite 
I 'sing of 1715. — In 1707 a Parliamentary union took place between 
] 1 gland and Scotland, since which time the two kingdoms, under 
1 e name of Great Britain, have had one Parliament at London. 
( n Queen Anne's death in 1714 the Elector of Hanover, in accord- 
: nee with the Act of Succession, passed by Parliament in 1689, 
It came King of Great Britain with the title of George I./ since 
^\hich time the German House of Hanover, or Brunswick — often 
railed the House of Guelf — has occupied the British throne. In 
1 715 the Jacobites (extreme Tories) rose in favor of the Stuart 
claimant, the son of the ill-fated James II.; but after the battle of 
Sheriff Muir, near Perth, in Scotland, in 1716, the rebellion was 
; uppressed in both England and Scotland, and the Jacobite leaders 
were beheaded, except Lord Nithisdale, who escaped from prison 
through the aid of his wife. George I. died in 1727, and was suc- 
( ceded by his son, George II. 

2. Wars against the Turks. — In 1716 Charles VI. of Germany, in 
alliance with the Republic of Venice, waged a bloody war against 
Turkey to force the Sultan to abide by the Peace of Carlowitz; 
and Prince Eugene defeated the Turks at Peterwardein in 1716 and 
at Belgrade in 171 7, and by the Peace of Passarovitz in 1 718 Turkey 
surrendered Belgrade to Austria. In 1737 the Emperor Charles VI. 
of Germany joined the Empress Anna of Russia in another war 
against the Turks; but after the defeat of the Austrians on the 
Danube the Peace of Belgrade closed the war in 1739, Austria sur- 
rer.dering Belgrade to Turkey. From 1741 to 1743 Russia, under 
the Empress Elizabeth, waged a successful war against Sweden. 



262 MODERN HISTORY. 

3. War of the Quadi-uple llliauce against Spain. — In 1 7 1 7, England, 
France, Holland, and Germany formed the Quadruple Alliance 
against Spain to enforce the stipulations of the Peace of Utrecht, 
which Cardinal Alberoni, Prime Minister of Spain, attempted to vio- 
late for the aggrandizement of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty; but the 
destruction of the Spanish fleet in the Mediterranean by the British 
fleet, and the defeat of the Spaniards in Sicily by the Austrians, and 
in the North of Spain by the French, forced Spain to relinquish her 
ambitious pretensions and makepeace in 1720; while the Duchy 
of Savoy became the Kingdom of Sardinia. 

4. The Mississippi and South Sea Schemes. — In 1720 the cele- 
brated Mississippi Co»ipa?iy, organized in France by the Scotch- 
man John Law for the extinguishment of the French national debt, 
failed, involving in utter financial ruin thousands who had invested 
their fortunes in the stock of the company ; and the popular indig- 
nation compelled Law to leave France. About the same time the 
Sotifh Sea Company, which Sir George Blount had organized in 
England for the extinguishment of the British national debt, also 
failed, and thousands who had invested their all in the stock of the 
company were reduced to complete poverty; but Parliament was 
forced" by an indignant public sentiment to confiscate the estates of 
the contrivers of the unprincipled scheme. 

5. War of the Polish Succession. — In 1733 the Emperor Charles 
VI. of Germany and the Empress Anna of Russia forcibly dethroned 
Stanislaus Leczinski, who had just been elected King of Poland by 
the Polish Diet ; thus causing the War of the Polish Succession; 
Louis XV. of France, the son-in-law of the deposed Stanislaus, 
espousing his cause, and Spain and Sardinia siding with France. 
The French defeated the Austrians under Prince Eugene on the 
Rhine ; while the French, Sardinians and Spaniards defeated the 
Austrians forces in Italy. By the treaty of peace in 1738, Stanislaus 
renounced the Polish crown in exchange for Lorraine, which was to 
be annexed to France after his death ; while the House of Austria 
surrendered Naples to the Spanish Bourbon prince, Don Car- 
los; but secured the concurrence of the European powers to the 
Pragmatic Sanction, transmitting the Austrian succession to the 
Emperor's daughter. 

6. Anglo-Spanish war. — For a long time, England, under her able 
Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole, remained at peace with other 
nations; but ir; 1739 a war broke out between England and Spain, 
on account of colonial and commercial difficulties. In 1739 a 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 263 

British fleet under Admiral Vernon stormed and captured Porto 
Bello, the chief Spanish town on the Northern coast of South 
America; but in 1740 Admiral Vernon and General Wentworth 
were repulsed in an assault upon Carthagena, another Spanish town 
on the Northern coast of South America. This Anglo-Spanish war 
became merged in the great War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. 



SECTION IV.— WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (i 740-1 748). 

1. The Austrian Succession. — Coalition against Maria Tlieresa. — 

Notwithstanding the peaceful disposition of the Prime Ministers of 
England and France — Sir Robert Walpole and Cardinal Fleury — 
in 1740 all Europe became engaged in another great struggle — 
known as the War of the Austrian Succession — caused by the designs 
of the Kings of France, Spain, and Prussia, and the Electors of 
Bavaria and Saxony, upon the hereditary Austrian territories, after 
the death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany — the last of the 
direct male line of the House of Hapsburg, and the competitor of 
Philip of Anjou for the Spanish crown in 1700. The Emperor, 
just before his death in 1740, had left the hereditary Austrian 
dominions to his young daughter, Maria Theresa, Queen of Hun- 
gary, in accordance with the Pragmatic Sanction, which had been 
confirmed by all the leading powers of Europe ; but France, Spain, 
Prussia, Bavaria, and Saxony united in a coalition against Maria 
Theresa, who was aided by England, Holland, and Sardinia. 

2. First Silesian War. — In 1740 the youthful Frederick II. — after- 
wards known as Frederick the Great — who had just become King 
of Prussia by the death of his father, Frederick William I. (1713- 
1740) — led 30,000 men into the Austrian province of Silesia, which 
he had determined to seize. Frederick defeated the Austrians at 
Molvitz, in Silesia (April 10, 1741), and at Czaslau, in Bohemia 
(May 17, 1742); and the First Silesian War was closed by the 
Peace of Breslati, in 1742, by which the King of Prussia kept 
possession of Silesia. 

3. French and Bavarian invasion of Austria and expulsion by the 
Hnng-arians. — In 1741 a French and Bavarian army invaded Bohe- 
mia and seized Prague. In her distressing situation, Maria Theresa, 
with her infant son Joseph in her arms, appeared before the Hun- 
garian Diet at Presburg ; and, in answer to her appeals, the Hunga- 
rian nobles brandished their swords, exclaiming unanimously : 
" Moriamur pro rege nostra Maria Theresa!'^ ("Let us die for our 



264 MODERN HISTOR V. 

king, Maria Theresa!") The wild Slavic races of Southern 
Hungary thereupon took the field, expelled the invaders from the 
Austrian dominions, pursued them into Bavaria, and captured 
Munich, the Bavarian capital, on the very day that the Elector 
Charles Albert of Bavaria was crowned at Frankfort as Emperor 
Charles VII. of Germany, after his election by the Imperial Diet 
(1741). In 1742 the French army, under Marshal Belleisle [_/>t'/-:7/'\, 
made a hasty and disastrous retreat to the Rhine, the greater part 
of his army perishing. 

4. Battle of Dcttiiijjeu. — Charles Albert's death, and continuation of 
the war. — An English army under King George II., marching into 
Germany, defeated the French under Marshal de Noailles [no-a'^ at 
Dettingen (June 27, 1743), and drove them across the Rhine. The 
death of the Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria — then Emperor 
Charles VII. — early in 1745, did not end the war, as the animosity 
between England and France was too great. The German Imperial 
Diet chose Duke Francis of Lorraine, Maria Theresa's husband, for 
Emperor, with the title of Francis I. Francis reigned as a cipher 
for twenty years (i 745-1 765), his wife being the real sovereign. 

6. Second Silesian War. — In 1744 the King of Prussia began the 
Seco/i(i Silesian IVar against Maria Theresa ; and invading Bohemia 
with 70,000 men, he besieged and took Prague, with its garrison of 
18,000 Austrian troops (September, 1744). In 1745 Frederick de- 
feated the Austrians at Hohenfriedberg (June 4, 1745), and at Sorr 
(September 30, 1745), after which he defeated the Saxons, now the 
allies of the Austrians, at Kesselsdorf (December 15, 1745), and 
entered Dresden. By the Peace of Dresden with Maria Theresa 
(December 25, 1745), Frederick retained Silesia. 

6. Battles of Fonteuoy, Rauconx, and LaiFeld. — In the meantime 
hostilities were carried on in the Austrian Netherlands (now Bel- 
gium), where the French army under Marshal Saxe, son of Augustus 
II. of Saxony and Poland, defeated the allied English, Dutch, and 
Austrian armies, under the Duke of Cumberland, son of King 
George II. of England, in the great battles of Fontenoy (May 11, 
1745), Raucoux \_ro-koo''\ (October 11, 1746), and Laffeld (July 2, 
1747), and finally expelled the allies from the Austrian Netherlands; 
while the French and Spaniards were driven from Italy by the 
Austrians and Sardinians. 

7. The Pretender's invasion of Great Britain. — Battle of Ciilloden. — 
In 1745 Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender — a 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 265 

grandson of the ill-fated King James 11. of England — with the assist- 
ance of France, landed in Scotland. Being joined by some of the 
Highland clans, he took possession of Edinburgh (September 16, 
1745); and five days later he defeated an English force under Sir 
John Gope in the battle of Preston-Pans. He then marched south- 
ward into England, creating great consternation throughout the 
kingdom, and advanced to within a hundred miles of London, but 
then suddenly retreated back into Scotland. On January 13, 1746, 
the Pretender gained a victory over the English troops under 
General Hawley at Falkirk; but on April 16, 1746, his army was 
thoroughly annihilated by the English army under the Duke of 
Cumberland in the decisive battle of GuUoden, where the cause of 
the Stuarts received its death-blow. The royal troops desolated the 
country for miles around Gullodefi, and many of the Pretender's 
adherents in Scotland were banished to America. After many 
romantic escapes, the Pretender landed safely in France. 

8. The war between tlie Euglisli and Fi*ench in India and North 
America. — The war between the English and the French extended 
to other parts of the world ; and in North America the English took 
the fortress of Louisburg, on Gape Breton Island, in Nova Scotia, 
from the French (June 28, 1745), after a month's siege ; but in 
India the French besieged and took Madras from the English in 
1746. 

9. Peace of Alx la Cliapelle. — All parties finally grew weary of the 
struggle; and in October, 1748, the Peace of Aix la Chapelle was 
concluded, by which Maria Theresa was left in possession of the 
hereditary Austrian dominions, with the exception of Silesia, which 
remained with the King of Prussia; while France recognized the 
title of the House of Brunswick to the throne of England. 

SECTION v.— THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR (i 756-1 763). 

1. Eiglit years' of peace in Europe, and causes of tlie Seven Years' 
War. — After eight years' of peace, Europe became involved in 
another great contest — known as the Seven Years' War — caused by 
the colonial rivalry between England and France in India and North 
America, and by the determination of the great Austrian empress- 
queen, Maria Theresa, to recover Silesia from Frederick the Great 
of Prussia. 

2. Colonial stnis^g-le between Eng^land and France in India and North 
America. — The English East India Company — chartered by Queen 



2 66 MODERN HIS TORY. 

Elizabeth in 1600 — had acquired Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, 
during the seventeenth century; while the French had acquired 
Pondicherry, Chandernagore, and Mahe. During the War of the 
Austrian Succession the English and French colonists interfered on 
opposite sides in the quarrels of the native Hindoo princes; and 
although peace had been made between England and France in 
1748, the English and French colonists in India continued hostilities, 
and the French were on the point of expelling the English from 
Hindoostan, when Robert Clive, a poor clerk of the English East 
India Company, with only 500 men, surprised Arcot in 1751 and 
defended that place against the French and their Hindoo allies, 
whom he defeated in many battles, thus establishing the British 
supremacy in India. The encroachments of the French upon the 
territories of the English Ohio Company (formed in 1749) led to 
hostilities between the English and French colonists in North 
America in 1754, when Colonel George Washington, a young Vir- 
ginian, attacked and defeated a French force at the Great Meadows, 
in Southwestern Pennsylvania; but Washington was afterward be- 
sieged at Fort Necessity and compelled to capitulate (July 4, 1754), 
but was allowed to return to Virginia. In 1755 an English expe- 
dition under Generals Winslow and Monckton captured the French 
forts in Nova Scotia (June, 1755), and cruelly drove the French 
colonists away; but the English General Edward Braddock was de- 
feated and killed while marching against Fort Du Quesne \_du-kan^\ 
on the site of the present city of Pittsburg (July 9, 1755), and the 
remnant of his force was saved from destruction by Colonel Wash- 
ington ; while in Northern New York the French under Baron 
Dieskau '\^de-es'-ko'\ were defeated by the English in the battle of 
Lake George (September, 1755), Dieskau being wounded and taken 
prisoner. 

3. Coalition ag'ainst Frederick the Great. — The colonial dispute 
was the cause of war between England and France in 1756; while 
the ambition of Maria Theresa — who was determined to recover 
Silesia from Frederick the Great — caused a rupture between Austria 
and Prussia. Maria Theresa induced Frederick's personal enemies 
— Madame Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV. of France ; the 
Empress Elizabeth of Russia ; Augustus III. of Saxony and Poland; 
and King Adolphus Frederick of Sweden — to imite with her in an 
alliance against the King of Prussia, who.se only ally was England. 
Thus France, Austria, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden were leagued 
against Prussia and England. . While Frederick the Great was con- 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR K 267 

ducting the war against the Austrians, Russians, Saxons, Swedes, 
and French on the Continent of Europe, his powerful ally, Great 
Britain, was waging a vigorous contest against the French in North 
America, on the ocean, and in the East and West Indies. The 
King of Prussia had to contend against powerful odds, but he finally 
brought the war to an honorable termination. 

4. Frederick's campaign in Saxony in 1756. — Without waiting to 
be attacked, the King of Prussia invaded Saxony, in August, 1756, 
with 70,000 men; and after defeating the Austrians at Lowositz, he 
compelled the Saxon army, then reduced to 14,000 men, to sur- 
render themselves prisoners of war, and forced many of them into 
the Prussian service. The Elector Augustus III. then abandoned 
Saxony and fled into Poland, where he remained until the close of 
the war. 

5. English disasters in 1756 and 1757. — In 1756 a French force 
under Marshal de Richelieu captured the island of Minorca, in the 
Mediterranean, from the English ; and in North America, the 
French general, the Marquis de Montcalm \_moni-kahm''], captured 
two posts, with their garrisons, from the English, in the province 
of New York — Fort Oswego in 1756, and Fort William Henry in 
1757- 

6. Founding of tlie British Empire in India (1756-'57). — In India, 
Surajah Dowlah, a native Hindoo prince, attacked the English in 

1756, took Calcutta, and confined 146 English prisoners in the 
Black Hole of Calcutta — a small prison eighteen feet square — 
where all but twenty-three died before morning; but in 1757, the 
illustrious Colonel Clive retook Calcutta, and with only 3,000 men, 
Clive defeated Surajah Dowlah, at the head of 70,000 men, in the 
decisive battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757), which established the 
British Empire in India. 

7. Battles of Prague, Kolin, Rossbach and Leuthen (1757). — Fred- 
erick's enemies had assembled 700,000 men for the campaign of 

1757. Frederick began the campaign by invading Bohemia with 
70,000 men; and on May 6, 1757, he won a great but dearly-bought 
victory over 75,000 Austrians in the celebrated battle of Prague. 
The fruits of this victory were lost to the King of Prussia by the 
severe defeat inflicted upon him by the Austrians under Count Daun 
at Kolin (June 18, 1757); and Frederick was obliged to evacuate 
Bohemia with great haste. After the battle of Kolin, Frederick's 
situation was most desperate. The imjuense armies of the Austrians, 



2 68 MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

Russians, Swedes, and French were closing in upon him on all 
sides, and his utter ruin appeared inevitable. His English and 
Hanoverian allies, under the Duke of Cumberland, were compelled 
to cease from hostilities against the French by the disgraceful Con- 
vention of Klosterseven ; while an Austrian array broke into Prussia 
and laid Berlin under contribution. Frederick the Great extri- 
cated himself from his desperate situation by two brilliant victories 
toward the close of 1757. Marching into Saxony with only 20,000 
men, he annihilated a combined French and German imperial army 
of 70,000 men, at the village of Rossbach {/-os'-bokA^ (November 5, 
1757), after a battle of less than half an hour, the French and their 
allies fleeing from the field in the wildest dismay, and leaving Sax- 
ony in Frederick's possession. Marching into Silesia, Frederick, 
with only 30,000 men, inflicted a crushing defeat upon an Austrian 
army of 80,000 men at Leuthen \^loi' -ten^ exactly one month after 
the battle of Rossbach (December 5, 1757). 

8. English aid to Frederick (1758). — Frederick's brilliant triumphs 
at Rossbach and Leuthen astonished the world, and aroused the 
greatest enthusiasm in England for the King of Prussia and his 
army. Under the direction of the great statesman, the elder Wil- 
liam Pitt — whose spirit seemed to be breathed into the British fleets 
in all the seas and the British armies in all parts of the world — the 
English Government furnished a subsidy of 700,000 ]>ounds sterling 
to the King of Prussia, and sent another army into Germany. In 
175S the P^nglish and Hanoverian army in Germany, under Prince 
Ferdinand of Brunswick, numbering only 30,000 men, drove the 
French army of 90,000 men across the Rhine. 

9. Battle of Zorudorf and Hoclikirdien (1758).— In 1758 the 
Russians frightfully ravaged the Prussian province of Brandenburg; 
but in the bloody battle of Zorndorf (August 24, 1758), the King 
of Prussia, with only 30,000 men, defeated 60,000 Russians, and 
drove them into Poland. Marching into Saxony, Frederick the 
Great was defeated with the loss of all his artillery at Hochkirchen 
\}w-kirk'-en'\ by the Austrians under Count Daun (October 14, 1758; 
but after driving the Austrians from Silesia, Frederick returned to 
Saxony and compelled Daun to raise the sieges of Dresden and 
Leipsic. 

10. Battle of Minden.— Battle of Knnersdorf (1759).— The cam- 
paign of 1759 was opened in Germany by Prince Ferdinand of 
Brunswick, the commander of the English and Hanoverian army in 
Germany, who inflicted a sev.ere defeat upon the French at Minden 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 269 

(August I, 1759), and drove them across the Rhine. The King of 
Prussia was not so fortunate during 1759. Tbe Austrian and Russian 
armies under Laudon and Soltikoff, 100,000 strong, invaded the 
Prussian province of Brandenburg, and inflicted a disastrous defeat 
upon Frederick the Great, who had only 50,00.0 men, in the bloody 
battle of Kunersdorf (August 12, 1759). This disaster reduced 
Frederick to the brink of ruin, and Dresden was captured by the 
Austrians. 

11. Battles of Lie^itz and Torg-au (17G0). — The campaign of 1 760 
opened disastrously for the King of Prussia. One of his generals 
was defeated by the Austrians in Silesia, and Frederick himself 
failed in the siege of Dresden. Marching into Silesia, Frederick 
gained a brilliant victory over the Austrians under Laudon at 
Liegnitz (August 15, 1760), which restored him the possession of 
Silesia; but Frederick was unable to prevent the Austrians and 
Russians from ravaging Prussia, taking Berlin, and destroying its 
arsenals and foundries. Advancing into Saxony, Frederick the 
Great gained a decisive victory over the Austrians under Count 
Daun in the bloody battle of Torgau (November 3, 1760), which 
obliged the allies to evacuate the Prussian dominions. 

12. English successes in North America in 1758. — Conquest of Can- 
ada (1759-'60). — After William Pitt had become Prime Minister of 
England, conquest shone upon the British arms in North America. 
In 1758 the English captured three important posts from the French. 
Generals Amherst and Wolfe took Louisburg, in Nova Scotia, after 
a vigorous siege (July 26); Colonel Bradstreet took Fort Frontenac, 
in Canada, (August 27); and General John Forbes drove the 
French from Fort Du Quesne, in November ; but General Aber- 
crombie was repulsed io an attack upon Fort Ticonderoga, on the 
western shore of Lake Champlain (July 8, 1758;. The year 1759 
was one of glorious triumph for the English in North America. 
General Amherst drove the French from Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point in July; General William Johnson captured Fort Niagara 
after a vigorous siege (July 25); and General Wolfe defeated the 
Marquis de Montcalm at Quebec, both commanders being mortally 
wounded (September 13), and Quebec was surrendered to the Eng- 
lish General Murray (September 18). In 1760 the English were de- 
feated at Sillery, near Quebec (April 28); but the surrender of 
Montreal to the English (^September 8, 1760) was the death-blow to 
French power in North America, and the conquest of Canada by 
the English was complete. 



270 MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

13. Family Compact of the Bourbons. — Closing- campaigns. — Ferdi- 
nand VI. of Spain (i 746-1 759) — the son and successor of Philip of 
Anjou — was succeeded by his warlike brother, Charles III. (1759- 
17S8; and in 1761 Spain and France entered into a close alliance 

—known as the Family Compact — by which these two Bourbon 
kingdoms agreed to aid each other against all foes. Portugal, how- 
ever, aided England in the war. The campaign of 1761 was not 
signalized by any great event in Europe, but in India the British 
under Colonel Clive took Pondicherry and shattered the French 
power to atoms. In 1762 British fleets captured Cuba and the 
Philippine Islands from the Spaniards; while Belleisle, on the very 
coast of France, was also taken by the British navy. 

14. CSiang-e of Ministry in Eng-iand. — Cliaug-e in the attitude of 
Russia. — After the death of George II. of England and the accession 
of his grandson, George III., in 1760, the English people grew 
wearj of the war in Germany ; and the great William Pitt (Earl 
of Chatham), whose genms and energy had made Great Britain the 
greatest nation in the world, was succeeded by a Tory Ministry 
under the Earl of Bute, who was inclined toward peace. As Fred- 
erick the Great was about to fall before the power of Austria and 
Russia, his implacable enemy, the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, 
died early in 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III., 
who withdrew from the Austrian alliance and formed an alliance 
with the Prussian warrior-king ; but the sudden deposition and 
death of Peter III. in prison, and the accession of his wicked wife, 
the great Empress Catharine II., brought about the withdrawal of 
Russia from the war; while Sweden made peace with Prussia. 

15. Peace of Paris. — Peace of Hubertsburg'. — At length all parties 
grew tired of the war; and on February 10, 1763, England, France, 
Spain, and Portugal concluded the Peace of Paris, by which France 
ceded Canada to England and Louisiana to Spain. On February 
21, 1763, Austria and Prussia concluded the Peace of Hubertsburg, 
by which Frederick the Great retained Silesia, for which so much 
blood and treasure had been expended. Thus England and Prussia 
emerged victorious from a gigantic struggle against the combined 
powers of Europe. Great Britain was now the leading nation of 
the world, while France had lost all her former prestige. Thus 
ended the great Seven Years' War, in which one million men per- 
ished, and which raised Prussia to a front rank, gave North America 
to the Anglo-Saxon race, and established the British Empire in 
India. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 271 

SECTION VI. — EUROPE DURING THE REIGN OF CATHARINE 
THE GREAT OF RUSSIA (1763-1796). 

1. British affairs. — John Wilkes. — The freedom of the press cstab- 
lislied. — After the accession of George III. to the British throne in 
1760, the British Government, under the Earl of Bute, attempted 
to replenish the exhausted British treasury by heavy duties upon 
various domestic manufactures, but this scheme threw England into 
a violent ferment, and Lord Bute was forced to resign ; but his 
successor, George Grenville, was just as unpopular, and one of his 
first acts was the arrest and imprisonment of John Wilkes, editor 
of the North Briton and a member of Parliament, for asserting in 
his paper that the " king's speech" to Parliament contained a false- 
hood. The judges of the court of common pleas decided the com- 
mitment of Mr. Wilkes illegal, whereupon he was released; and 
Wilkes was four times elected to Parliament by the electors of Mid- 
dlesex, but the House of Commons as often rejected him. Wilkes 
was regarded by the popular party as a martyr and the representa- 
tive of a principle of British freedom — the liberty of the press. 
Ever since his time, newspapers — "the fourth estate" — have been 
allowed to criticise the Government's acts with freedom. The 
London Times — the greatest newspaper of the world — was founded 
January i, 1788. 

2. Anglo-Irish affairs. — Parliamentary onion of England and Ire- 
laud. — Irish affairs occupied the attention of the British Government 
during the last quarter of the eighteenth century. During the War 
of the American Revolution — when nearly all Europe was united 
either directly or indirectly against England — Ireland arose and 
demanded the independence of her Parliament — a demand which 
the British Ministry conceded in 1782, through the efforts of Mr. 
Grattan, one of Ireland's great statesmen, orators, and patriots. 
In 1 798 — during the wars of the French Revolution — the society 
of United Irishmen excited a rebellion for the overthrow of British 
power in Ireland, but the movement was quelled by the British 
Government, and peace was finally restored by the mild and merci- 
ful measures of Lord Cornwallis, then Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 
On the first day of the 19th century — New Year's day, 1801 — a 
constitutional union took place between England and Ireland, since 
which time there has been but one Parliament for The United King- 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1803 Robert Emmett, a 
young Irish enthusiast, excited an insurrection in Dublin, and paid 
the penalty of the attempt with his life. 



272 



MODERN HISTOR V. 



3. Tlie British Empire in India. — Colonel Robert Clive — the 
founder of the British Empire in India — was created Lord Clive, 
Baron of Plassey, in consideration of his great services; but he was 
at length accused of oppressing the natives, and subjected to a 
searching investigation by Parliament, which, although he was ac- 
quitted, drove him to despair and suicide. Warren Hastings, the 
first Governor-General of British India, was impeached by the 
British House of Commons, under the direction of Edmund Burke, 
for misgovernment and oppression of the natives of India; but was 
acquitted by the House of Lords, after a trial of eight years (1787- 
1795), during which the great British statesmen, Burke, Fox, and 
Sheridan, distinguished themselves by their oratory. In the mean- 
time, under the direction of the illustrious statesman and Prime 
Minister, the younger William Pitt — son of the elder William Pitt 
(Earl of Chatham) — Parliament passed an act taking from the con- 
trol of the East India Company a large share of the government of 
British India and investing it in a board of control under the super- 
vision of the British Government, for the purpose of protecting the 
natives of India from extortion and oppression by the Company's 
servants and directors. In the meantime, under the administrations 
of Clive, Warren Hastings, and Lord Cornwallis, the British en- 
larged their empire in India. In 1767 Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore 
— a native Hindoo prince, who had risen from the rank of a com- 
mon Sepoy to the throne of Mysore — began a desolating war of 
several years against the English. In 17S0 — during the War of the 
American Revolution — he attempted, with the aid of France and 
Holland, to expel the English from Hindoostan, but was completely 
defeated by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. His valiant soi^ and successor 
— Tippoo Saib — renewed the war in 1790, but was utterly defeated 
•in 1792 by Lord Cornwallis. In 1799 — during the wars of the 
French Revolution — Tippoo Saib, instigated by the French, again 
attacked the English, but was defeated and killed in front of his 
capital, Seringapatam (May 4, 1799), and his kingdom of Mysore 
was annexed to British India. 

4. Inflitence of French writers, and iimovations of Princes and Min- 
isters. — About the middle of the eighteenth century the foundations 
of all existing social, political, and religious institutions were terri- 
bly shaken by a class of French writers — such as Voltaire, Montes- 
quieu Imon' -^es-ht], Rousseau [^roo'-sol, and the Encyclope'dists — 
who fearlessly attacked abuses in Church and State with unanswer- 
able arguments, and with the keenest wit and sarcasm. The new 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR V. 



273 



spirit of the age was fully recognized by the princes and prime 
ministers of the different nations of Continental Europe, who inau- 
gurated various civil, political, and ecclesiastical reforms. The 
first of these innovators was the Marquis de Pombal — the able Prime 
Minister of King Joseph of Portugal — who was untiring in repairing 
the mischief done by the terrible earthquake which, on November i, 
1755, destroyed 30,000 houses and 60,000 human lives at Lisbon ; 
and who inaugurated many wise reforms and banished the Jesuits 
from Portugal. The Count d' Aranda, the famous Prime Minister 
of King Charles III. of Spain, caused 5,000 Jesuits to be seized in 
one night and banished the members of the Order from Spain in 
1767. The Duke de Choiseul, the worthy Prime Minister of Louis 
XV. of France, banished the Jesuits from France. Pope Clement 
XIV. abolished the society of Jesuits in 1773, but the Order was 
afterwards restored. Struensee, the Prime Minister of King Chris- 
tian VII. of Denmark, also undertook various reforms, but so 
aroused many enemies, who caused him to be beheaded on false 
charges in 1772. King Gustavus III. of Sweden, who broke the 
power of the Swedish aristocracy, was assassinated at a masquerade 
in 1792, by Ankarstrom, one of his former guard-officers. The 
Emperor Joseph II. of Germany (1765-1790) — the son of Maria 
Theresa, who died in 17S0 — abolished serfdom and established reli- 
gious equality in the Austrian states; but his innovations produced 
formidable rebellions in the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and 
Hungary, and quiet was only restored when his successors — Leo- 
pold II. (1790-1792) and Francis II. (1792-1S35) — abolished the 
reforms of Joseph II. A democratic insurrection which broke out 
in Holland against the Stadtholder in 1784, was suppressed in 1787. 
by King Frederick William II. of Prussia (i 786-1 797), the brother 
of the Stadtholder's wife, and the successor of Frederick the Great. 
France acquired Corsica in 1769, after a gallant resistance by the 
Corsicans under Pascal Pao'li. 

5. Partitions of Poland and Rnsso-Tiirkish wars. — In the meantime,. 
Russia, under her great empress, Catharine II. (i 762-1 796), was 
gaining a preponderating influence in Eastern Europe. On the 
death of Augustus II., in 1764, the Polish Diet, overawed by a 
Russian army and at the dictation of Catharine II., elected Stanis- 
laus Poniatowski King of Poland. The Polish Diet, controlled by 
a Catholic majority, disfranchised the Polish Dissidents ; whereupon 
a bloody civil war distracted Poland, the Dissidents being aided by 
the Russians, who defeated and pursued the Catholic Poles into ■ 
18 



274 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



Turkish territory. Thereupon a furious war ensued between Russia 
and Turkey, the Russians conquering Moldavia and Wallachia and 
taking Bender by storm in 1770; and by the Peace of Kitdschuk- 
Kainardji, in 1774, Russia gained important advantages. In 1772 
occu'Tred the First Partiiion of Poland, when Russia, Prussia, and 
Austria seized a portion of the Polish territory. In 1783 the Rus- 
sians conquered the Tartars of the Crimea. In 1787 Catharine II. ot 
Russia, in alliance with Joseph II. of Austria, began another fierce 
war against the Turks ; but Sweden and Prussia became allies of the 
Turks. Russia concluded the Peace of Wrela w\\h Sweden in 1790. 
Austria concluded \.\\(d Peace of Rei'c hen bach with. Prussia in 1790, 
and the Peace of Sistova with Turkey in 1791. The Russians took 
the strong Turkish fortresses, Potemkin taking Oczakow (December 
17,. 1788), and Suwarrow taking Ismail (December 22, 1790); and 
Turkey was compelled to accept the Peace of f assy in 1792. The 
Poles had also resisted the Russians, but the valiant Polish leader, 
Thaddeus Kosciusko, was defeated in 1792; and in 1793 occurred 
the Second Partition of Poland, when Russia and Prussia seized 
another large slice of Polish territory. The Poles again rose in arms 
against Russia and Prussia in 1794, and drove back the Prussian 
.invaders of Poland ; but the Russians completely subdued the Poles, 
Kosciusko being defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner; Praga 
;>being stormed and Warsaw taken by Suwarrow, and King Stanislaus 
Poniatowski being compelled to abdicate. In 1795 occurred the 
Third Partition of Poland, when Russia, Prussia, and Austria seized 
tthe remainder of the Polish territory; and Poland was blotted from 
the list of nations — a victim of one of the most audacious outrages 
in all history. Catharine II. — who ranks next to Peter the Great 
.among Russian sovereigns — died in 1796. Her son and successor, 
Paul, becoming insane, fell a victim to a conspiracy of Russian 
nobles in 1801, and was succeeded by his son, Alexander I. (1801- 
1825.) 

SECTION VII.— THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775-1783). 

1. (1761-1775). — Taxation without Representation. — Writs of As- 
; sistance. — The Seven Years' War oppressed England with a heavy 

debt and exhausted the British treasury ; and after the accession of 
•George III. to the British throne in 1760, the British Ministry 

under the Earl of Bute, in order to lighten the burden of taxation 
. at home, proposed the taxation of the English colonies in North 

America ; but the Anglo-Americans, who had learned and cherished 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR V. 275 

democratic ideas, resolutely maintained that Parliament had no 
right to tax the colonies, because the colonies were not represented 
in Parliament, and declared that " Taxation without Representation 
is Tyranny.'' The first attempt to exercise the so-called right to 
tax the colonies was the issuance of Writs of Assistance, which ena- 
bled the king's ofiicers to seize any man's goods on which the duty 
had not been paid ; but James Otis, of Massachusetts, then Advo- 
cate-General of the colonies, boldly denied the legality of the writs 
when the subject was brought before the General Court at Boston 
in 1761. 

2. The Stampt Act and its repeal. — In 1765 the British Parliament 
passed the famous Stamp Act, which required all deeds, bonds, 
notes, and newspapers to be executed upon stamped paper, for 
which a duty should be paid to the British Government. The 
passage of the Stamp Act caused intense indignation in America; 
associations called Sons of Liberty were formed and pledges were 
made to resist the law, riots broke out, bells were muffled and tolled, 
the stamps were seized and destroyed, the "stamp distributors" 
were compelled to resign, and appeals were made to Parliament for 
the repeal of the obnoxious act. James Otis, in Massachusetts, and 
Patrick Henry, in Virginia, denounced the act with their eloquence. 
Non-importation leagues were formed in the American cities against 
the importation of British goods into the colonies so long as the 
Stamp Act remained in force. In October, 1765, a congress com- 
posed of delegates from nine colonies assembled in New York City, 
and adopted a "Declaration of Rights" and a statement of griev- 
ances, asserting that Parliament had no right to tax the colonies. 
Through the exertions of William Pitt (Lord Chatham), a friend of 
the colonies, the obnoxious Stamp Act was repealed in March, 1766, 
to the great joy of the colonies, but this joy was of short duration. 

3. Other obnoxious measures. — Circular Letter. — In 1767 Parlia- 
ment imposed duties on tea, glass, paper, painters' colors, and other 
articles, imported into the colonies. The colonists were again 
aroused to indignation; and in 1768 the Massachusetts Assembly 
sent a Circular Letter to the other colonial assemblies, asking their 
cooperation in an endeavor to obtain a redress of grievances, and 
every colonial assembly sent a cordial response. The British Min- 
istry demanded that the Circular Letter should be rescinded, but 
the Massachusetts Assembly refused to rescind, and reaffirmed that 
England had no right to tax her colonies. 



276 



MODERN HIS TOR V. 



4. " Boston Massacre." — Destruction of tea in Boston harbor. — In 

1768 General Thomas Gage was sent to Boston with 700 royal 
troops, to enforce the submission of the people. The arrogance of 
the soldiers exasperated the people to a high degree; and on March 
5, 1770, the people attempted to drive the troops from the city, 
whereupon the soldiers fired upon the mob, several of whom were 
killed. This affray is known as the "Boston Massacre. ' ' In March, 
1770, during the Ministry of Lord North, Parliament repealed all 
the obnoxious duties except that upon tea; but the Americans, who 
contended for //le principle of no taxation without representation, 
were not satisfied so long as a duty remained upon a single article, 
and therefore continued their non-importation leagues against the 
purchase and use of tea. In 1773 '^^e English East India Company 
sent several cargoes of tea to America; but the people of Boston 
held meetings in Faneuil Hall and resolved that no tea should be 
landed, and one night a party of men disguised as Indians boarded 
the vessels and cast 342 chests of tea into the harbor (December 16, 

1773)- 

5. Boston Port Bill. — First Continental Congress. — Minute-Men. — 
Wlu8:s and Tories. — To punish the people of Boston, Parliament 
passed the Boston Port Bill, in March, 1774, ordering the port of 
Boston to be closed against all commerce. Several other obnoxious 
acts were passed, one requiring the royal governor to send arrested 
and mdicted persons to England for trial. The closing of the port 
of Boston by order of General Gage (June i, 1774,) caused much 
suffering in Boston, but contributions for the relief of the Bostonians 
were sent from many of the colonies. The First Continental Con- 
gress — composed of delegates from all the colonies except Georgia 
— assembled in Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. This Congress 
asserted the rights of the colonies, addressed the people of Great 
Britain, and petitioned the king and Parliament for a redress of 
grievances. The Provincial Assembly of Massachusetts met in 
October, 1774, and voted to raise an army of 20,000 men. The 
people of New England were arming and drilling ; and being ready 
to take up arms at a moment's warning, they were called Minute- 
Men. Party lines were now clearly drawn in America ; the great 
body of the American people who opposed the British Government 
being called Whigs, and the few Americans who sided with the 
Briti'^h Government being styled Tories. The popular leaders were 
John Hancock, John Adams, and Samuel Adams, in Massachusetts, 
and Patrick Henry, in Virginia. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



277 



6. (1775.) — Lexington and Concord. — Bunker Hill. — General Wash- 
ington. — Invasion of Canada. — On April i, 1775 there were 3,000 
British troops in Boston; and on April 19 (1775), a British de- 
tachment of 800 men under Lieutenant Colonel Smith and Major 
Pitcairn attacked and dispersed eighty Minute-Men at Lexington, 
about ten miles from Boston, and destroyed the American stores at 
Concord, six miles from Lexington ; but on their return to Boston 
the British were harassed all the way by the aroused Minute-Men, 
who fired upon the retreating royal troops from behind trees, stone- 
fences, and buildings. The news of bloodshed at Lexington and 
Concord aroused the Anglo-American colonists from New England 
to Georgia; royal authority was repudiated, and the whole country 
was in rebellion against British power. General Gage was soon sur- 
rounded in Boston by 20,000 provincials. The fortress of Ticon- 
deroga, on Lake Champlain, in New York, was captured by Colonel 
Ethan Allen of Vermont and Colonel Benedict Arnold of Con- 
necticut (May 10, 1775); and Crown Point, on the same lake, was 
seized by Colonel Seth Warner (May 12, 1775). On the night of 
June 16, 1775, an American detachment of 1,500 men under Colonel 
William Prescott fortified Breed's Hill, near Boston; from which 
3,000 British troops under Generals Pigott and Howe finally dis- 
lodged them the next day (June 17, 1775), ^fter being twice repulsed 
in the famous Battle of Bunker' s Hill, the American General Joseph 
Warren being killed. The Second Continental Congress — which had 
assembled at Philadelphia, May 10, 1775 — elected George Wash- 
ington, of Virginia, commander-in-chief of the colonial forces (June- 
15, 1775); and on July 3(1775) he took command of the American 
army at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In the meantime the Virginians 
had been aroused by the eloquence of Patrick Henry, who, in the 
Virginia Assembly at Richmond, uttered the words: '■^ Give ine 
Liberty or give me Death!'' Lord Dunmore, the royal governor 
of Virginia, was defeated and driven to the British shipping before 
Norfolk, which city he burned January i, 1776, after which he went 
to England. An American expedition under General Richard 
Montgomery invaded Canada by way of Lake Champlain, captured 
St. John's and Montreal, and was joined before Quebec by another 
American expedition under Colonel Benedict Arnold, who had in- 
vaded Canada by way of Maine ; and the combined forces laid siege 
to Quebec, but were disastrously repulsed in an assault upon the city, 
Montgomery being killed and Arnold wounded (December 31, 
1775); after which the Americans were driven out of Canada. 



278 



MODERN HIS TOR V. 



7. (1776.) — Boston. — Fort Moultrie. — Declaration of Independence. 
— Long Island. — »1ute Plains. — Trenton. — Early in 1776 the British 
Government hired 17,000 Hessians from Germany to subdue the 
revolted colonists. Washington compelled the British army under 
General Howe to evacuate Boston, after a vigorous siege and bom- 
bardment (March 17, 1776), and to sail to Halifax, in Nova Scotia ; 
after which Washington marched his army to New York, The 
British fleet and army under Sir Peter Parker and Sir Henry Clinton 
were repulsed in an attack on Fort Moultrie near Charleston, South 
Carolina (June 28, 1776). In the meantime a pamphlet called 
Common Sense, written by Thomas Paine, had prepared the minds 
of the American people for independence; and Richard Henry 
Lee, of Virginia, offered a resolution of independence in the Con- 
tinental Congress at Philadelphia (June 11, 1776), and the Congress 
declared the independence of the Anglo-American colonies under 
the name of The United States of America, July 4, 1776; the De- 
claration being written by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, and 
warmly advocated by John Adams, of Massachusetts, Dr. Benjamin 
Franklin, of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman, of Connecticut, and 
others ; while John Hancock, the president of the Congress, headed 
the list of signatures to the immortal document. The Americans 
unde> General Israel Putnam were disastrously defeated near Brook- 
lyn, on Long Island (August 27, 1776) ; after which Brooklyn and 
New York City were both evacuated by the Americans, and taken 
possession of by the British under Generals Howe and Clinton. 
Washington's army was defeated at White Plains (October 28, 1776), 
and the Hessians under General Knyphausen \_nip-hou'-scn'] stormed 
and captured Fort Washington with its garrison (November 16, 
1776). Washington's army retreated across New Jersey into Penn- 
sylvania, pursued by the British under Lord Cornwallis, and the 
American cause seemed utterly ruined. On Christmas night Wash- 
ington suddenly recrossed the Delaware, and fell upon and captured 
1,000 Hessians at Trenton (December 26, 1776). 

8. (177 7.) — Pi-inceton. — Brand} wine. — Gerniantown. — Bennington. 
— Saratoga. — Burgoyne's surrender. — Washington defeated a British 
detachment at Princeton (January 3, 1777), but the brave American 
General Hugh Mercer was killed. In April, 1777, the British undei 
Governor Tryon ravaged Connecticut, burning Danbury, but were 
driven back after their defeat at Ridgefield, where the American 
General Wooster was killed (April 27, 1777). During the summei 
Washington retired into Pennsylvania; while the whole British army 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



279 



under Howe was conveyed by the fleet down the Atlantic and up 
the Chesapeake, and, after landing, marched into Pennsylvania. 
Washington was defeated by Howe at Brandywine creek (September 
II, 1777) ; where the young Marquis de Lafayette, a wealthy French 
nobleman, who had just come to aid the Americans, was wounded. 
An American detachment under General Anthony Wayne was 
surprised and partly massacred by a British detachment at Paoli 
(September 20, 1777); and Howe took possession of Philadelphia 
(September 26, 1777), the American Congress having fled to 
Lancaster, and then to York. Washington was again defeated by 
Howe at Germantown (October 4, 1777), and the British fleet cap- 
tured Forts Mifflin and Mercer below Philadelphia (November, 
1777)- I^ the meantime General Burgoyne had invaded New York 
from Canada, with an army of 10,000 men — consisting of British, 
Canadians, Hessians, Tories, and Indians — and seized Crown Point, 
Ticonderoga, and Fort Edward ; the Americans fleeing to the 
Mohawk. Fort Schuyler \sk}^ -ler\ was unsuccessfully besieged by 
Tories and Lidians (August 3, \l']i), and General Herkimer was 
defeated and killed by Tories and Indians at Oriskany (August 6, 
^m)> but the " Green Mountain Boys" under Colonel John Stark 
defeated a body of Hessians at Bennington, in the present Vermont 
(August 16, 1777). An indecisive battle was fought at Saratoga 
between the American army under General Horatio Gates and the 
British army under Burgoyne (September 19, 1777); but Gates 
defeated Burgoyne in a second battle at Saratoga (October 7, 1777); 
and ten days afterward Burgoyne surrendered his entire army of 
6,000 men to Gates (October 17, 1777). This victory produced 
unbounded joy in America. Besides Lafayette, other foreign officers 
came to aid the Americans — namely. Baron de Kalb, a German, 
and the two Poles, Count Pulaski and Thaddeus Kosciusko. 

9. (1778.) — French alliance. — Talley Forge. — Monmouth. — Wy- 
oming-. — Rhode Island. — Savannah. — Early in 1778 France formed an 
alliance with the United States, and war between France and England 
ensued. About this time the venerable William Pitt, after making a 
great speech in the House of Lords against American independ- 
ence, sank into his grave. During the severe winter of 1 777-' 78 
Washington's army suffered almost indescribable hardships at their 
encampment at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill. Baron de Steuben, 
a Prussian officer, joined the American army at Valley Forge. In 
June, 1778, Sir Henry Clinton, Howe's successor, evacuated Phila- 
delphia, and crossed the Delaware into New Jersey, pursued by 



2 8o MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

Washington ; and a severe but indecisive battle was fought at Mon- 
mouth Court House (June zZ, 1778). Early in July, 1778, a body 
of Tories and Indians under Colonel John Butler desolated the 
beautiful Wyoming Valley, in Northeastern Pennsylvania; and in 
November another party of Tories and Indians carried massacre 
through Cherry Valley, in New York. General John Sullivan 
repulsed a British attack at Quaker Hill, near Newport, Rhode 
Island (August 29, 1778); but the Americans were compelled to 
evacuate the island. Late in 1778 the seat of war was transferred 
to Georgia, and Savannah was taken by the British, after it had 
been evacuated by the Americans under Colonel Robert Howe 
(December 29, 1778). The American finances were in a wretched 
condition, the two hundred million dollars of Continental money 
then afloat having become almost worthless. 

10. (1779). — Brier Creek. — Stouo Ferry. — Stouy Point. — SiilliTan's 
campaign. — Savannah. — Spain and England. — A band of Tories who 
had desolated the Carolina frontier were defeated by Colonel 
Pickens at Kettle Creek (February 14, 1779) ; and an American de- 
tachment under Colonel Ashe was annihilated and dispersed by the 
British under General Prevost at Brier Creek, Georgia, (March 3, 
1779); after which the British marched against Charleston, South 
Carolina, pursued by the Americans under General Lincoln; but 
the Americans were defeated at Stono Ferry (June 20, 1779). 
Daniel Boone, the great pioneer, struggled with the Indians in the 
present Kentucky; and Major George Rogers Clarke, of Virginia, 
wrested Vincennes, on the Wabash, and Kaskaskia, on the Missis- 
sippi, from the British. In April, 1779, the British under Governor 
Tryon ravaged Connecticut, but were defeated at Greenwich by 
General Putnam and driven back. Early in July Governor Tryon 
again desolated the Connecticut coast, burning East Haven, Fair- 
field, and Norwalk. In May a British squadron and land troops 
under Sir George Collier and General Matthews ravaged the country 
around Norfolk, Virginia; and Sir Henry Clinton took Stony Point 
and Verplanck's Point, on opposite sides of the Hudson (May 31 
and June i, 1779). Stony Point was recaptured by an American 
detachment under General Wayne, after a gallant night assault 
(July 16, 1779) ; and Paulus Hook (now Jersey City), New Jersey, 
was surprised and captured by the Americans under Major Henry 
Lee (July 19, 1779). During the summer of 1779 General Sullivan 
severely chastised the Indians of Western New York for their devas- 
tation of the Wyoming Valley the year before. Late in September, 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 28 1 

1779, the Americans under General Lincoln, assisted by a French 
fleet under the Count d'Estaing ]^des-tang'\ laid siege to Savannah, 
in Georgia ; but on the 9th of October the besiegers were repulsed 
with heavy loss in an attempt to carry the British works by storm, 
the brave Pole, Count Pulaski, being killed ; whereupon the siege 
was abandoned. An American war vessel under John Paul Jones 
defeated and sunk two British war vessels off Flamborough Head, 
on the Eastern coast of England, September 23, 1779. In June, 
1779, Spain declared war against England; and the Spanish army 
and navy besieged Gibraltar. 

11. (1780.) — Charleston. — Sanders' Creek. — King's Mountain. — 
Arnold and Andre. — England and Holland. — In the spring of 1780 a 
British land and naval expedition under Sir Henry Clinton and 
Admiral Arbuthnot laid siege to Charleston, South Carolina, which 
surrendered, with its garrison of 6,000 Americans under General 
Lincoln, after a severe bombardment (May 12, 1780). British de- 
tachments then overran South Carolina and Georgia, and Clinton 
returned to New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis to hold the Southern 
States in subjection. In August General Gates marched south with 
an American army, but his army was annihilated and dispersed by 
Lord Cornwallis and Lord Rawdon at Sanders' Creek, near Camden, 
South Carolina (August 16, 1780), the brave Baron de Kalb being 
killed on the American side; and two days later (August 18, 1780), 
Colonel Thomas Sumter's detachment was cut to pieces by the 
British cavalry under Colonel Tarleton at Fishing Creek. A body 
of American Whig militia gained a brilliant victory over a force 
of Tories at King's Mountain, South Carolma (October 7, 1780). 
The British under General Matthews invaded New Jersey, but were 
defeated by the Americans under General Greene at Springfield 
(June 23, 1780), and driven back. In the fall of 1780 the American 
General Benedict Arnold endeavored to surrender West Point, on 
the Hudson, in New York, into the hands of the British; but the 
plot was discovered in time to prevent its execution, through the 
capture of Major John Andre, a gallant and accomplished young 
British officer; and Andre was hung as a spy by the Americans, 
while Arnold the traitor succeeded in making his escape to the 
British, and received a command in the British army and a large 
sum of money as a reward for his treason. England declared war 
against Holland late in 1 780 ; and the great Catharine II. of Russia 
induced Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, the German Empire, and Por- 
tugal to join her in the Armed Neutrality against England. 



282 MODERN HIS TORY. 

12. (1781). — Cowi)ens. — Guilford. — Hobkirk's HiU. — Eutaw 
Springs. — Yorktown. — Surrender of Cornwallis. — The year 1781 
opened with a mutiny of 1,300 Pennsylvania troops, who left Wash- 
ington's camp at Morristown, New Jersey (January i, 1781), on 
their way to Philadelphia to compel Congress to ameliorate their 
hardships; but they returned to camp after being promised redress 
by a committee from Congress, which met them at Princeton, where 
they also met British emissaries who tried to bribe them into the 
British service, and whom they delivered to General Wayne for 
punishment as spies. A mutiny of the New Jersey line at Pompton 
(January 18, 1781) was quelled by military force, and the ring- 
leaders were hanged. At the beginning of 17S1 Arnold the traitor 
made a plundering raid in Virginia. General Nathaniel Greene was 
appointed to the chief command of the American army in South 
Carolina in 1781. An American detachment under General Daniel 
Morgan defeated the British cavalry under Colonel Tarleton in the 
battle of the Cowpens, in South Carolina (January 17, 1781). 
Morgan then joined Greene, and the whole American army retreated 
across North Carolina, pursued by the British army under Lord 
Cornwallis. Greene was defeated by Lord Cornwallis at Guilford 
Court House, in North Carolina (March 15, 1781); after which 
Greene returned to South Carolina, and was defeated by the British 
under Lord Rawdon at Holikirk's Hill, near Camden (April 25, 
1 781). Greene afterward unsuccessfully besieged Fort Ninety-Six, 
but an American detachment stormed and captured Augusta, in 
Georgia (June 5, 1781). Greene fought an indecisive battle with 
the British under Colonel Stuart, Rawdon's successor, at Eutaw 
Springs, South Carolina (September 8, 1781), after which the Brit- 
ish fled to Charleston. In the meantime Lord Cornwallis led his 
army into Virginia and fortified Yorktown. The allied American 
and French armies, under General Washington and the Count de 
Rochambeau \j-o'-sham-bo\ left their position on the Hudson, and 
marching for Virginia, appeared before Yorktown late in September, 
1 781, and were joined by the French fleet under the Count de 
Grasse \(ieh-gras'\, while Arnold the traitor desolated the Con- 
necticut coast, burned New London and massacred the garrison of 
Fort Griswold. The allies immediately laid siege to Yorktown, and 
opened a heavy bombardment on the British works October 9th; 
and finally (October 19, 1781) Lord Cornwallis surrendered his 
entire army of 7,000 men and all his shipping to Washington and 
de Grasse ; thus giving the death-blow to British power m America. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 283 

13. (1782). The war between Eng'Iand and her Eui'opean enemies. 
— Siege of Gibraltar. — The contest was now virtually ended in North 
America, but the war between England and her European enemies 
continued for some time longer. For several years hostilities had 
been waged with various success by the British against the French, 
the Spaniards, and the Dutch, on the ocean, and in the East and 
West Indies. In India, the English besieged and took Pondicherry 
from the French in 1778; but the Spaniards wrested the island of 
Minorca from the English in February, 1782, after a long siege. 
On April 12, 1782, the British fleet under Admiral Rodney gained 
a great victory over the French fleet under the Count de Grasse in 
the West Indies. Since June, 1779, the French and Spanish armies 
and navies had been besieging the British garrison at Gibraltar; 
and on September 13, 1782, the French and Spaniards made a 
furious assault upon that strong fortress, but met with a disastrous 
repulse, after fierce fighting and a gallant defense by the English 
garrison under General Elliot. During the conflict the Spanish 
ships caught fire, but the crews were saved by their English enemies, 
who nobly went to their rescue. 

14. Peace of Paris and Versailles. — The retirement of the Tory 
Ministry of Lord North in England, and the accession of a Whig 
Ministry under the Marquis of Rockingham, facilitated the restora- 
tion of peace. Preliminary treaties were signed at Paris between 
Great Britain and the United States (November 30, 1782), and 
between Great Britain and France (January 20, 1783); and finally, 
September 3, 1783, a definitive treaty of peace was concluded at 
Versailles between the United States, Great Britain, France, Spain, 
and Holland ; whereupon the United States became an acknowledged 
power among the nations of the earth. The British retired from 
America; evacuating Savannah, July 11, 1782 ; Charleston, Decem- 
ber 14, 1782; and New York, November 25, 1783. Washington 
resigned his commission to Congress, then sitting at Annapolis, in 
Maryland, and retired to his farm at Mount Vernon, on the banks 
of the Potomac; and the American army was disbanded November 
3' 1783- 

15. Formation and adoption of the United States Constitution. — Its 
provisions. — When peace returned, the American people perceived 
that the Articles of Confederation adopted during the war did not 
form a bond of union sufficiently strong to entitle the United States 
to the dignity and character of a nation; and in May, 1787, a con- 
vention of delegates from all the States but Rhode Island assembled 



284 MODERN HISTORY. 

in Philadelphia with Washington as president, and after four 
months' deliberation they framed a Constitution for the new Repub- 
lic. This Constitution divided the United States Government into 
three departments — executive, legislative, and judicial. The exec- 
utive power was vested in a President and Vice President, to be 
elected every four years by Electors to be appointed by the States. 
The legislative power was vested in a Congress, to consist of a Sen- 
ate and a House of Representatives ; two Senators to be elected from 
each State by the Legislature thereof for six years, and the Represen- 
tatives to be elected for two years by the people, the Representatives 
to be appointed among the States according to their population. 
The judicial powder was vested in a Supreme Court and such inferior 
courts as Congress might establish. The Constitution was finally 
ratified by conventions of the people in the several States, and 
became the organic law of the new Republic; and on the 4th of 
March, 1789, the old Continental Congress expired, and the new 
National Government was organized. Then the Republic of the 
United States of America began its glorious career as a nation. 

SECTION VIII.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1799). 

1. Corrupt reig-n of Loiii.s XV. — Louis XV. had at first secured the 
affections of his subjects, but toward the close of his long reign of 
fifty-nine years (i 715-1774), he lost their esteem by plunging into 
the lowest depths of dissipation and vice, neglecting public affairs, 
and leaving the government to unworthy favorites — Madames Pom- 
padour and Du Barri. The taxes were all paid by the middle and 
lower classes, while the nobility and the clergy were exempt from 
all taxation. The long and expensive wars with the other European 
nations had increased the public debt, and the French people were 
suffering under a burden of the most oppressive taxation. Louis 
XV. suppressed the parliaments of Paris after a ten years' dispute ; 
because they refused to register his edicts of taxation, and opposed 
the arbitrary lettres de cachet \Jet-ters deh ka-sha'^ by which any 
innocent person could be imprisoned or banished. The writings 
of Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and the Encyclopedists had 
made the French people discontented with existing institutions; 
and, in connection with the establishment of a democratic republic 
in North America, led to the mighty upheaval which convulsed 
France and all Europe in the next reign. 

2. Lonis XVI. — The profligate Louis XV. died in 1774, and was 
succeeded on the French throne by his grandson, Louis XVI., who 



EIGHTEENTH CEiYTUR V. 285 

was then only twenty years of age, and who had married the beau- 
tiful Marie Antoinnette Ima-re/ o>tg-twaw-net''\, daughter of the 
great Austrian Empress, Maria Theresa. Louis XVI. was a virtuous 
and pious prince, and was sincerely desirous of the welfare of his 
subjects, but he ascended the throne under the most unfavorable 
circumstances. The wickedness and extravagance of the court of 
Louis XV. had reduced France to the brink of ruin. The nation's 
finances were in the most deplorable condition; the public credit 
was gone ; and the French people were groaning under the most 
oppressive taxation. 

3. Turg-ot, Necker, Calonne, aud Brienne. — To remedy the existing 
disordered state of the public finances, Turgot [^toor-go''\. Minister 
of Finance, undertook various reforms ; but his measures of economy 
were opposed by the extravagant courtiers, and Turgot was obliged 
to resign. His successor, Necker, a wealthy Swiss banker, by pur- 
suing the same course, was also forced to retire from office. The 
vain and extravagant Calonne [^ka-lon''\, another Finance Minister, 
continued the system of loans; and to remedy the existing deficit 
in the treasury caused by the increase of the national debt in conse- 
quence of France's participation in the War of the American Revo- 
lution, he proposed the taxation of the nobility and the clergy of 
France, and was in consequence obliged to resign. Calonne's suc- 
cessor, Brienne \_dre-en''\, continued the usual method of raising 
loans and increasing the taxes ; but his edicts of taxation were 
resisted by the parliament of Paris, which refused to register them. 
The Government then arrested the boldest members of the parlia- 
ment, and banished them to Troyes [trwazv']; but this measure so 
aroused the popular indignation that the Government was obliged to 
effect a compromise with the banished members, who were recalled ; 
and the parliaments were again sanctioned. A spirit of republican- 
ism had prevailed among the French people since the War of the 
American Revolution. Serious riots now occurred in many French 
towns; and Brienne was daily burned in effigy, and was finally 
obliged to retire from office, at a time when the French treasury 
was destitute of funds, and the French Government appeared on 
the eve of bankruptcy. 

4. Necker recalled and the States -General summoned. — That great 
popular favorite, Necker, succeeded Brienne in the management of 
the French finances, to the great joy of the French people. Necker 
immediately made arrangements for the assembling of the States- 
General, a great national assembly composed of representatives of 



286 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

the three estates — the nobility, the clergy, and the people — which 
had not met since 1614. The French people demanded, and Necker 
maintained, that the number of representatives of the people, or 
Third Estate, should equal the numbers of the other two estates 
combined. This popular demand was conceded, and the king 
fixed the number of representatives at 300 for the nobility, 300 for 
the clergy, and 600 for the people. 

5. The States-General, or National Assembly. — The Royal Session. — 
The Stateb-General assembled at Versailles \yer-sails'\ May 5, 1789. 
At the opening of the States-General a difficulty arose as to how the 
representalives of the three estates — the nobility, the clergy, and the 
people — should vote. The nobility and the clergy demanded that 
the three estates should meet in separate bodies, while the people 
insisted that they should meet in one body. After waiting for some 
weeks for the nobility and the clergy to join them, the deputies of 
the people, or the Third Estate, on June 17, 1789, declared them- 
selves the National Assembly of France, being, as they maintained, 
the representatives of the great body of the French people. They 
chose the astronomer Baillie \_lml-ye''], a deputy from Paris, as presi- 
dent. Among the members of the Assembly were the Count de 
Mirabeau \_!ne-ra-bo''\Sind the abbe Sieyes \_se-yds''\, two able and dis- 
tinguished men. The boldness of the National Assembly, in voting 
against the present levy of taxes in case of its dissolution by the 
king, alarmed the court; and the king appointed a Royal Session, 
and closed the Assembly-hall for several days. When, on June 20, 
1789, the members of the Assembly found the doors closed, they 
proceeded to the Tennis Court, where they solemnly vowed not to 
separate until they had framed a constitution for France. When, 
on June 22, 1789, they found the Tennis Court closed, they pro- 
ceeded to the church of St. Louis, where they held their meeting. 
The Royal Session was held June 23. The king made some con- 
cessions, but dissolved the Assembly. The deputies of the people 
kept their seats, and when the king's officer ordered them to with- 
draw, the Count de Mirabeau addressed him thus: "The repre- 
sentatives of the people of France have determined to remain. Go, 
tell your master that we sit here by the power of the people, and 
that we will only be driven away at the point of the bayonet." 
The weak king then receded from his position, and advised the 
nobles and clergy to join the people's representatives in the National 
Assembly. The king's vacillation completely destroyed the French 
people's respect for authority, and strengthened the popular cause. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR V. 2 S 7 

6. Excited condition of tlie Parisian populace. — In the meantime 
the people of Paris had been kept in a constant state of excitement 
by licentious journals and pamphlets, and by the speeches of un- 
principled demagogues in the streets and in taverns, and particularly 
in the Palais Royal, the residence of the wealthy but dissolute Duke 
of Orleans, the king's cousin. A revolutionary spirit prevailed 
among the people of the capital ; and Paris was slumbering over a 
volcano which was ready to burst forth at any moment. The action 
of the king, in collecting a large army between Paris and Versailles, 
and in dismissing Necker from office, heightened the exasperation 
of the Parisian populace. 

7. Capture and destruction of tlie Bastile. — On July 14, 1789, the 
populace of Paris, after obtaining 30,000 stand of arms and some 
cannon from the Hospital of Invalides, proceeded against the Bas- 
tile {_^as-^ee/'^, an old castle used as a state-prison. After a furious 
assault by the mob, and a heroic defense by the garrison in the Bas- 
tile, Delaunay Ide-Za-na'], the governor of the Bastile, surrendered, 
and the mob was completely triumphant. The enraged mob tore 
the governor in pieces, and his head was carried on a pole through 
the streets of Paris. 

8. Necker recalled. — Lafayette. — The People supreme. — The Emi- 
grants. — The destruction of the Bastile struck the king and the aris- 
tocrats with consternation, and made the power ■ of the people 
supreme throughout France. The king recalled Necker to the 
Ministry, and appeared before the people with the tricolor, the new 
national emblem, in his hat. Lafayette was put in command of the 
newly-organized National Guard. The peasants throughout France 
no longer paid their tithes to the nobility and the clergy; but took 
a terrible revenge for the tyranny which they and their ancestors 
had suffered for centuries, by murdering or driving away many pf 
the nobles and reducing their chateaux \_sha-tdz''\ to ashes. Many 
of the nobility and aristocracy — with the prince of Conde and 
Polignac \_po-leen-yak^ at their head — fled from France, for which 
reason they were called Emigrants, 

9. Abolition of aristocratic privileges and titles. — The nobility and 
the clergy now voluntarily renounced their exclusive privileges; 
and, in one excited evening-session (August 4, 1789), the National 
Assembly decreed the abolition of all exclusive privileges, all titles 
and distinctions of rank in France, and all tithes and labor-dues, 
and declared the equality of all classes before the law and with 



2 88 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

respect to taxation. By degrees, all vestiges of the Feudal System 
were swept away; trial by jury and religious freedom were estab- 
lished; the Church was deprived of all her possessions; and the 
whole political condition of France was changed. France was 
divided into eighty-six Departments or Prefectures, which were 
divided and subdivided into Arrondissements, Ca/itons, and Com- 
munes. 

10. The King brought to Paris by a mob. — The conduct of the 
officers of the royal regiment, at a banquet at Versailles, in tramp- 
ling under foot the tri-colored cockade enraged the Parisians; and 
on October 5, 1789, an immense mob — composed of the lowest 
refuse of the people, and mostly women, armed with clubs, pikes, 
and forks — left Paris for Versailles, to compel the king and the 
National Assembly to remove to Paris. On arriving at Versailles, 
the mob stormed the palace ; and had it not been for the timely 
arrival of Lafayette with the National Guard, the whole royal family 
would have been sacrificed to the fury of the mob. On the follow- 
ing morning the king accompanied the mob to Paris, and the 
National Assembly also removed thither. 

11. The Jacobin Club. — During all this time the revolutionary 
cause was aided by numerous political clubs, the most important of 
which was the i<vix\o\\?, Jacobin Club, with its numerous ramifications 
throughout France. The members of this club were satisfied with 
nothing less than a pure democratic republic, with perfect civil and 
political liberty for all classes. 

12. The Fete of the Federation. — On July 14, 1790 — the anniver- 
sary of the destruction of the Bastile — a grand ceremony, known as 
the Fete of the -Federation, took place in the Champ de Mars [^shotig 
deh mar''], in Paris, at which the utmost good feeling was manifested 
by all classes and all persons. The king, the members of the 
National Assembly, and Lafayette in the name of the National 
Guard, took an oath to support the new constitution which the 
Assembly was engaged in framing. 

13. Death of Mirabeau. — Fliglit and capture of the royal family. — 
The Count de Mirabeau — who had already abandoned the cause of 
the Revolution, which he had at first so enthusiastically espoused — 
died April 2, 1791 ; and Louis XVL was no longer able to restrain 
the mad fury of the Jacobins. \n June, 1791, King Louis XVI. 
and his family attempted to escape from France in a large carriage; 
but, when they got as far as Varennes [va-ren'], they were discov- 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 289 

ered, and brought back to Paris by an insolent mob, and shut up 
in the Tuileries \t'weel-r^\ which thenceforth remained their palace 
and their prison. 

14. The new constitution. — In the meantime the French National 
Assembly had suspended the royal functions until the king should 
swear to the new constitution. On September 14, 1791, Louis XVI. 
took an oath to support the new constitution against foreign and 
domestic foes, and to execute its provisions to the best of his ability. 
After passing a self-denying ordinance that none of its members 
should be elected to the next assembly, the National Assembly 
declared itself dissolved. 

15. The French Legrislatiye Assembly. — Girondists and Jacobins. — 

The French Legislative Assembly — which convened at Paris October 
I, 1 791 — was divided between three parties. The Feuillafits, or 
Constitutionalists, upheld the constitution and the monarchy. The 
moderate Republicans — called Girondists, because their leading 
orators were from Bordeaux \_dor-do''] and the department of the 
Gironde — comprised the best men in the Assembly, such as Roland, 
Barbaroux [^bar-ba-roo''\, Brisisot \_bre'-so'], Condorcet \_kong-dor-sa''\ 
and others. The violent Republicans, or Jacobins — called the 
Moimtain, because they occupied the highest seats in the Assembly — 
were controlled by the Jacobin and Cordeliers clubs, whose chiefs 
were Robespierre \robes-pe-air'\ Marat \7nar-aH\ Danton and 
Camille Desmoulins \_ka-fneel' dcm-oo-lan^\ and were upheld by. 
the mob of Paris. 

16. The Emigrants. — War against Austria and Prussia. — In the- 

meantime the Emigrant nobles had gathered at Turin, and after- 
ward at Coblentz, and were making every effort to induce foreign 
powers to make war on France to restore the former despotism ; and 
the Assembly declared them traitors and conspirators. The pre- 
parations of Francis 11. of Austria and Frederick William II. of 
Prussia to interfere in the affairs of France, and Austria's ultimatum 
demanding the restoration of the former despotism in France,, 
caused the French Legislative Assembly to declare war, April 20, 
1792. King Louis XVI. — unable to resist the will of the Assembly 
and the people of France — accepted a Girondist Ministry headed 
by Roland, and very reluctantly yielded his assent to the declaration 
of war against the sovereigns who had armed in his behalf. Three 
French armies — commanded respectively by Lafayette, Rochambeau, , 
and Luckner — were sent to guard the Eastern frontiers of France. 
19 



290 



MODERN HIS TOR V. 



17. Insurrection of June 20, 1792, and effects of tlie Austro-Prussian 
invasion. — The dismissal of the Girondist Ministry was followed by 
the insurrection of June 20, 1792; when 20,000 rioters marched 
through the hall of the Assembly, where their leader, the brewer 
Santerre \_san-tcu'r''\, harangued the members; after which they in- 
sulted the royal family at the Tuileries. The plots of the Emigrants 
and the Austro-Prussian invasion of France caused the Assembly to 
declare the country in danger; whereupon the vilest wretches 
throughout France hastened to Paris, singing the newly-written 
revolutionary song, the Marseillaise. The fury of the French be- 
came ungovernable when Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick — the com- 
mander of the Austro-Prussian army of 140,000 men invading 
France at the close of July — issued an insolent proclamation de- 
manding that the French submit to their lawful sovereign, threat- 
ening to lay Paris in ashes if the royal family were harmed, and 
promising to obtain a free pardon from their sovereign for their 
rebellious conduct if they submitted. 

18. The Tenth of Aug-nst and the fall of tlie monarchy. — On August 
10, 1792, an immense mob, led by Danton, and armed with fifty 
pieces of cannon, carried the Tuileries by storm, massacred the 
Swiss Guards who defended it, and destroyed the furniture; the 
royal family having fled to the hall of the Assembly for protection. 
At the demand of the triumphant mob, the Assembly deposed the 
king ; the royal family were imprisoned in the Temple ; and the 
Paris Commune virtually ruled France. Lafayette — who had be- 
come obnoxious to the Jacobins by his efforts to save the king — was 
outlawed by the Assembly and compelled to seek refuge among the 
Austrians, by whom he was imprisoned five years at Olmutz and 
Magdeburg. 

19. Reign of Terror begiui by the September Massacres. — The cap- 
ture of Longwy and Verdun by the Prussians infuriated the Paris- 
ians; Danton declared it necessary to crush all opposition by 
striking terror into the Royalists at home; and 3,000 persons were 
imprisoned in one night. By the five days' September massacres 
(September 2-6, 1792J about 5,000 persons, many of whom were 
priests who had refused to take the revolutionary oath, were slaugh- 
tered in the different prisons of Paris, by hired assassins, under the 
direction of Mai at, Danton, and Robespierre. The Princess de 
Lamballe, the queen's friend, was among the victims. The same 
bloody scenes were enacted at Meaux, Rheims, Lyons, and Orleans. 
The Reign of Terror had fairly begun. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR V. 



291 



20. The French National Convention. — France a Republic. — On 

September 22, 1792, the French Legislative Assembly was succeeded 
by the French National Convention, which, on the very first day of 
its session, decreed the abolition of royalty in France, and pro- 
claimed France a republic. The Convention also enacted that 
time should thereafter be reckoned from the 2 2d of September, 
1792 — the birthday of the French Republic — instead of being reck- 
oned from the birth of Christ. 

21. Prusso-Aiistrian defeats. — In the meantime the Prussian and 
Austrian armies which had invaded France met with signal repulses. 
The Prussians were defeated by the French under Dumourier \du- 
moo-re-d'\ in the battle of Valmy (September 20, 1792), and obliged 
to retire from French territory. Dumourier then pursued the 
retreating Austrian army into the Austrian Netherlands ; and on 
November 6, 1792, he inflicted a severe defeat upon the Austrians 
in the battle of Jemappes \zhmap\, which gave the French possession 
of the Austrian Netherlands. 

22. Trial and execution of Louis XTI. — One great design of the 
Jacobins was to take away the life of "Louis Capet," as the king 
was now called. They accused him of conspiracy against the French 
Republic and of a treasonable correspondence with foreign powers. 
On December 20, 1792, Louis XVL was brought before the bar of 
of the National Convention as a criminal. His defense was con- 
ducted with great skill and ability by his counsel, Deseze {/.iu-saze'^ 
Tronchet \tron-sha'\ and Malesherbes \jnal-zharlf~\. The Giron- 
dists rightly endeavored to have the question of the king's guilt 
referred to the French people; but the Jacobins prevented it, and 
caused a resolution to be passed by the Convention declaring that 
a bare majority, and not a two-thirds vote, should be necessary for 
the condemnation of the king. After a trial of twenty days, the 
unfortunate monarch was declared guilty by a small majority, and 
sentenced to death within twenty-four hours. Among those who 
voted for the king's death was his own cousin, Philip, Duke of 
Orleans, a dissolute character, who had taken an active part in the 
Revolution as a Jacobin leader, and who had assumed the title of 
Philippe Egaliti [a-gat-e-td] (Equality). After bidding farewell 
to his family, Louis XVL was led to the place of execution in the 
Place de la Revolution, January 21, 1793. He ascended the scaf- 
fold with a firm step. Looking around at the vast multitude, he 
exclaimed: "Frenchmen, I die innocent; I forgive my enemies! " 
He was prevented from saying more by the noise of the drums 



292 MODERN HISTORY. 

which the brewer Santerre \_sari-tair''\ ordered to be beaten for the 
purpose of drowning his voice. Three executioners then seized 
hold of the king and tied his hands. The king then laid his head 
upon the block, and the Abbe Edgeworth exclaimed: "Son of St. 
Louis, ascend to heaven! " Down came the axe of the guillotine, 
and the head that had worn a crown was severed from the body. 
The executioner holding aloft the king's bloody, dissevered head, 
exclaimed: " Vive la Republique ! " Most of the spectators wept 
at the sad spectacle. His body, without being put into a coffin, 
was laid in a plain grave, and quicklime was spread over it to 
hasten the decomposition. Thus perished one of the kindliest and 
most virtuous monarchs that ever wore a crown. The memory of 
his infamous regicides will ever be held in execration by an impartial 
posterity. 

23. European coalition ag'aiust France. — The execution of Louis 
XVL, and a proclamation by the French National Convention offer- 
ing the aid of France to all nations that would overthrow their 
monarchical governments and establish republican forms in their 
stead, produced a coalition of almost all the crowned-heads of 
Europe against the French Republic, early in 1793. The Conven- 
tion, without waiting to be attacked, declared war against England, 
Spain, and Holland. The first coalition against revolutionary 
France embraced England, Spain, Portugal, Holland, Austria, 
Prussia, the German Empire, and the Italian states. England, 
under the younger William Pitt, headed the European coalition. 

24. Defection of Dnmonrier. — On March 18, 1793, the French 
army under the command of Dumourier in the Austrian Nether- 
lands, was defeated by the Austrians in the battle of Neerwinden ; 
after which Dumourier, becoming disgusted with the Rovolution, 
entered into an agreement with the Austrians to assist them in 
restoring the monarchy in France ; but his army did not share his 
feelings ; and, to escape the fury of the Jacobins, Dumourier was 
obliged to seek refuge among the Austrians. 

25. Fall of the Girondists. — Madame Roland. — Charlotte Corday. — 
The Girondists perished in their efforts to stop all revolutionary vio- 
lence. On June 2, 1793, a mob of 80,000 persons — incited by the 
leaders of the Mountain or Jacobins, Marat, Danton, and Robes- 
pierre — forced the National Convention to imprison or expel the 
Girondist deputies, many of whom died by the guillotine or suicide. 
Madame Roland — wife of the Girondist leader, Roland, and an 
enthusiast for human liberty in the early part of the Revolution — 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR V. 293 

was also guillotined ; and on being led to death, exclaimed : "O ! 
Liberty! What crimes are committed in thy name!" To avenge 
the fate of the Girondist leaders, the heroine Charlotte Corday 
assassinated the bloodthirsty Marat, having come to Paris all the 
way from Caen [^kong], in Normandy, for that purpose. She met 
death bravely. 

26. The Reig'ii of Terror. — During the Reign of Terror, unhappy 
France — torn by factions, rent by civil war, invaded by foreign 
enemies, threatened with famine, suffering from bankruptcy, cursed 
with atheism — presented a picture beyond our powers of description. 
The Committee of Public Safety, the Revolutionary Tribunal, and 
the bloodthirsty sans-culottes {song-ku-lot^l disposed of the lives of 
all who were opposed or indifferent to the cause of Liberie, Egalite, 
Fraternite. Royalists, Girondists, aristocrats, the wealthy, the re- 
fined, the educated, and all suspected persons, were in constant 
danger. Two hundred thousand suspected persons were arrested 
throughout France, imprisoned, and finally guillotined. In Paris 
alone seventy were led to the guillotine daily, and a sewer was con- 
structed to draw off the blood of the victims. The queen, Marie 
Antoinette; the Madame Elizabeth, sister to Louis XVI.; the dis- 
solute Duke of Orleans, the late king's cousin ; and a number of 
eminent generals and statesmen, perished by the guillotine. Infi- 
delity and atheism reigned supreme, and over the entrances to pub- 
lic cemeteries was written "Death is an eternal sleep." The 
National Convention abolished the sabbath and the Christian re- 
ligion ; substituted the worship of the "Goddess of Reason" in- 
stead; changed the calendar and the names of the days and months; 
and made the year to begin September 22 — the birthday of the 
French Republic. The churches were plundered, and the tombs 
of the French kings were destroyed. 

27. Royalist insurrections. — Meanwhile the Royalists had risen in 
different parts of France to oppose the revolutionary sans-culottes. 
When the National Convention ordered a levy en masse to repel 
foreign invasion, the Royalists of the beautiful district of La Vendee 
[_lah-von-da''\, in the West of France, flew to arms against the Re- 
public ; but the insurrection was finally crushed, and the whole 
district of La Vendee was ravaged with fire and sword. The re- 
volted city of Lyons was also subdued, and the rebellious citizens 
were mown down with grape and canister. The revolted city of 
Toulon was likewise reduced to submission, chiefly through the 
military skill of the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, then a 



294 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

lieutenant of artillery ; and the English fleet which had aided the 
revolted inhabitants was driven away. 

28. Campaign of 1793. — In the meantime the armies of almost all 
the other nations of Europe were on the French frontiers — the Eng- 
lish, Dutch, Germans, Prussians, and Austrians in the North and 
East; the Italians in the Southeast; and the Spaniards and Portu- 
guese among the Pyrenees in the Southwest. The allies were at 
(first successful in the campaign of 1793, but before the close of the 
year the arms of the French Republic were everywhere triumphant, 
and the invasion was defeated on all sides. The French generals, 
(Biron, Custine, Houchard \hoo-s}ia)^\ and Beauharnais {bo-ar-nd^ 
(vvere guillotined for being defeated. 

29. Fall of the Dantouists. — Fall of Robespierre. — The Reaction. — 

(After causing the Hebertists, or ultra Jacobins, to be executed, in 
March, 1794; Robespierre caused Danton and Camille Desmoulins 
\ka'meel (iem-oo-Iang'~\ and their adherents, who now sought to end 
the Reign of Terror, to be guillotined (April 5, 1794), after a vio- 
lent struggle in the Convention. Robespierre then ruled with blood 
and terror until July 27, 1794, when a number of Jacobin members 
of the Convention, whom he had determined to destroy, united for 
his overthrow. A terrible struggle followed in the Convention, 
Robespierre's voice being drowned in cries of " Down with the 
tyrant!" Robespierre and his adherents were condemned, but the 
Paris Commune armed in their defense and released them. After 
a life-and-death struggle between the Convention and the mob, the 
rioters were dispersed by a sentence of outlawry, and Robespierre 
and his partisans were secured at the Hotel de Ville. After Robes- 
pierre had fractured his jaw by a pistol-shot in an attempt at suicide, 
he and ninety-three of his partisans were guillotined, amid the 
shouts of the populace (July 28-30, 1794), thus ending the bloody 
Reign of Terror. A reaction now set in ; the Jacobins and sans- 
culottes were gradually deprived of their power, although they 
attempted to retain it by several insurrections ; the middle classes 
gradually gained the ascendency; and divine worship was restored. 
The financial condition of France was most deplorable ; the 
Assignats, issued at the begmning of the Revolution, having be- 
come worthless. 

30. Campaigns of 1794- '95. — Dissolution of the European coalition. 

— The French arms continued triumphant during the campaigns of 
1794 and 1795. Jourdan \^zhoor-dong'\ conquered the Austrian 
Netherlands, after the battle of Fleurus; after which Pichegru 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



295 



\peeslil -gru\ invaded and subdued Holland, which was converted 
into the Batavian Republic, in alliance with France. After the 
Peace of Basle between France and Prussia (April 4, 1795), ^^^ 
German states and Spain also withdrew from the European coalition, 
Spain even entering into an alliance with the French Republic; and 
England and Austria were the only considerable powers remaining 
at war Avith revolutionary France. 

31. The Directory. — Day of the Sections. — In October, 1795, the 
Constitution of the Year III. went into operation in France, by 
which the executive authority was vested in a Directory of five men, 
and the legislative power in a Council of Ancients and a Council of 
Five Hundred. A rising of the Paris Sections, aided by the Royal- 
ists, against the new constitution — when 40,000 insurgent National 
Guards attacked the Tuileries, where the Convention met — was 
crushed by the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, who mowed 
down the insurgents with grape-shot (October 5, 1795). 

82. Bonaparte's first Italian campaign. — Peace of Campo Formio. — 

In 1796 two French armies, under Moreau \mo-ro'^ and Jourdan 
respectively, having invaded Germany, were compelled to retreat 
and to recross the Rhine, by the Austrians under the Archduke 
Charles ; but in Northern Italy another French army, under the 
youthful Napoleon Bonaparte — who had just married Josephine, the 
widow of General Beauharnais — won imperishable renown. Bona- 
parte — then only twenty-six years of age — won sixty pitched battles, 
and destroyed five large Austrian armies; thus astonishing the 
world, and leaping at a bound to the rank of the greatest general 
of the world. His victory over the Austrians at Montenotte \jnori- 
ta-not'-ta'\ (April, 1796) caused Pope Pius VI. and the King of 
Sardinia to agree to humiliating treaties of peace. His brilliant 
victory at Lo'di, where he forced a passage over the bridge in the 
teeth of the Austrian batteries (May 10, 1796), gave the French 
possession of all Lombardy except the fortress of Mantua. By 
repeated victories he drove the Austrian army under Wurmser into 
Mantua ; and his victories over Alvin'zi's Austrian forces at Arco'la 
(November 15-17, 1796) and at Riv^oli (January 14, 1797) forced 
Wurmser to surrender Mantua after a vigorous siege. Bonaparte 
pursued the retreating Austrian forces under the Archduke Charles 
into the Austrian territories ; and an armistice was followed by the 
Peace of Campo Formio (October 17, ^l^^i), Austria ceding the 
Austrian Netherlands to France, receiving in exchange Venice and 
Dalmatia; the Venetian Republic, after an existence of 1345 years, 



296 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

having been subverted by Bonaparte, in revenge for attacking the 
French. 

33. The IStli Fructidor. — The elections in France in May, 1797, 
resulted in Royalist majorities; but the Republicans subverted the 
popular will by the Revolution of the i8th Fructidor (September 4, 
1797), surrounding the Tuileries with troops, and arresting eleven 
members of the Council of Ancients and forty-two of the Council of 
Five Hundred, and banishing them, along with two of the Directors 
(Carnot \_kar-no''] and Berthelemy), to French Guiana. The Roy- 
alist elections were then annulled, the returned Emigrants ban- 
ished, and many newspapers suppressed. 

34. Bonaparte's expeditiou to Egypt aud Syria. — Battle of the Nile. 

— In 1798, after threatening an invasion of England, Bonaparte 
sailed with an expedition to Egypt, a province of the Ottoman, or 
Turkish Empire, intending to strike at England's empire in India. 
Bonaparte took Malta on the way, and effected the conquest of 
Egypt by defeating the Mamelukes and Turks in the famous battle 
of the Pyramids (July 21, 1798); but the French fleet was destroyed 
by the English fleet under the great Admiral Horatio Nelson in the 
terrible battle of the Nile (August i, 1798). In 1799 Bonaparte 
invaded Syria and defeated the Turks in the battle of Mount Tabor; 
but failed in the siege of Acre, the Turkish garrison being aided by 
an English squadron under Sir Sidney Smith. After returning to 
Egypt and destroying a Turkish army in the battle of Aboukir 
(July 25, 1799), Bonaparte sailed for France, assigning his command 
to Kleber, who was afterward assassinated by a fanatical Moham- 
medan (June 14, 1800). 

35. Sister Republics. — War of the Second Coalition. — The French 
had established six sister republics ; having converted Holland into 
the Bataviaii Republic in i 795 ; Northern Italy into the Cisalpine 
Republic, and Genoa into the Ligurian Republic, in 1797; Switzer- 
land into the Helvetic Republic, and Rome into the Roman Republic, 
after a frightful pillage of Rome, in 1 798 ; and after the army of 
Naples under General Mack, which drove the French from Rome, 
was defeated and driven back, the French re-occupied Rome, in- 
vaded Naples, drove the Bourbon king, Ferdinand of Naples, from 
his kingdom, and converted Naples into the Parthenope' ian Republic, 
in 1799. Early in 1799 Austria, Russia, and Turkey united with 
England in a second coalition against the French Republic. The 
expulsion of the French army under Jourdan from Germany by the 
victories of the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, was followed 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



297 



by the murder of the French envoys returning from the Congress 
of Rastadt by order of the Austrian Government. The defeats of 
the French in Italy by the Austians and Russians under Suwarrow 
— namely, the defeats of Moreau at Cassan'o and Macdonald at the 
Tre'bia, and the defeat and death of Joubert \_zhoo-bare'~\ at No'vi — 
were followed by the overthrow of the four new Italian republics. 
The defeat of the Russians in Switzerland by the French under 
Massena at Zurich (September 26-27, 1799), was followed by the 
massacre of Zurich, in which the philosopher, Lava'ter, perished ; and 
Suwarrow returned to Russia with the shattered Russian forces. In 
Holland the French defeated the English under the Duke of York ; 
and the Czar Paul, disgusted with his allies, withdrew from the 
coalition. 

36. The IStlx Brumaire. — Bonaparte, First Consul. — After return- 
ing to France from Egypt, Bonaparte overthrew the Directory by 
the Revolution of the i8th Brumaire (November 9, 1799); when, 
with the assistance of his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, president of 
the Council of Five Hundred, he dissolved that body, at St. Cloud 
\_sang-kloo'\ at the point of the bayonet, amid great confusion and 
cries of "Outlaw him!" "Down with the Dictator!" Under 
the Constitution of the Year VIII. , Bonaparte was made I'irst Con- 
sul oi the French Republic, becoming a monarch in all but in name, 
though he nominally shared his power with two associate Consuls 
(the Abbe Sieyes and Roger Ducos \ro-zha'du-ko'Y), and with a 
Senate, a Tribunate, and a Corps Legislatif. 

SECTION IX.— PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION IN THE 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

Results of the French philosophy, and the Great Revolutions. — 

The eighteenth century was a period of remarkable changes — a time 
when old ideas and institutions were swept away, and when demo- 
cratic ideas came to the front. These ideas were first promulgated 
in France, where a number of distinguished philosophical writers 
arose about the middle of the eighteenth century to question all ex- 
isting beliefs and things. These writers were Voltaire, Rousseau 
{roo'-so^ Montesquieu \_mon' -tes-ku^ and the Encyclopedists. These 
writers attacked Church and State with keen and unanswerable 
arguments, and gave vent to a widely-felt desire for the "inalienable 
rights of man." These ideas first found practical expression in the 
efforts of princes and ministers at reform in Church and State, and 
afterwards in the establishment of the democratic republic of the 



298 MODERN HISTORY. 

United States of America — whose people, mostly of the liberty- 
loving Anglo-Saxon race — by experience were the best prepared for 
the adoption and practical application of the principles of self- 
government. The influence of the French philosophers and writers 
is seen in the American Declaration of Independence, in which are 
embodied many of the ideas promulgated in Rousseau's Contrat 
Social (Social Contract), in which the rights of man are advocated 
with great force. While France in her ideas influenced America, 
America — as a practical illustration of the sort of government 
advocated by Rousseau — in turn, influenced France, whose armies 
and fleets had aided to establish the young American Republic. 
The result was the French Revolution — that gigantic political mael- 
strom which swept away in one tremendous torrent the remains of 
mediaeval feudalism and the doctrine of the " divine right of kings." 
The influence of the French Revolution was felt in every European 
nation, effecting great political and social changes, and tending to 
elevate the oppressed masses. The literature of the eighteenth cen- 
tury was the literature of wit, and many old customs and institutions 
were laughed out of existence. Th ■ ,L,^c;ieral elevation of the 
European masses was also promoted 1- lunerous mechanical inven- 
tions and scientific discoveries. 

2. Scieutiflc discoveries. — In the latter part of the eighteenth cen- 
tury wonderful progress was made in science ; and it was at this 
time that chemistry began to take rank as a science, in consequence 
of the multitude of discoveries in that field. The following are the 
leading scientists and their discoveries : 

Great Physicians. 

BoERHAAVE (1668-1738) was a great physician of Holland. 

Haller (i 708-1 777) — a distinguished Swiss physician — was 
called the "Father of Physiology. " 

William and John Hunter (1718-1783 and 1728-1793) — 
brothers and natives of Scotland — were distinguished anatomists 
and surgeons. 

Mesmer (i 734-1815) — a physician of Vienna — discovered animal 
magnetism, ox mesmerism, in 1776. 

Edward Jenner (i 749-1822) — an English physician — made the 
first experiment in vaccination in 1796. 

Great Naturalists. 
BuFFON \boqf-fdn^'\ (i 707-1 788) — a great French naturalist — 
wrote Histoire Nature lie. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 299 

LiNN^us (i 707-1 778) — the great Swedish botanist — by his sim- 
ple and systematic classification of botanical discoveries, became 
the fomider of the science of botany. 

Werner (i 750-181 7) — a German — laid the fomidations of the 
sciences of geology and mineralogy. 

Great Chemists and Natural Philosophers, and their Discoveries. 

Joseph Priestley (i 733-1 804) — a great English chemist and 
writer, and a Unitarian preacher — discovered oxygen gas and more 
new substances than any other chemist. His house and library 
were destroyed by a mob because of his sympathy with the French 
Revolution ; and he spent the last ten years of his life in America, 
and died at Northumberland, Pennsylvania. 

Lavoisier \Ja-waw-se-a''\ (i 743-1 794) — a distinguished French 
chemist — arranged the science of chemistry by systematizing the 
various discoveries. He was guillotined during the French Revo- 
lution. 

Benjamin Franklin (i 706-1 790) — a great American statesman 
and natural philosopher — made investigations which prepared the 
way for the science of electricity. 

Galvani (1733-1798), and Volta (1745-1827) — two Italian 
philosophers — discovered what are known as galvanic and voltaic 
electricity. 

Joseph Black (i 728-1 799) — a Scotch chemist — discovered car- 
bonic acid gas. 

Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) — an English chemist — dis- 
covered the constituent parts of air and water. 

John Dalton (i 766-1844) — an English chemist and physicist — 
discovered the atomic theory. 

Great Mathematicians and Astronomers. 

EuLER (i 707-1 783) — a celebrated Swiss mathematician — flour- 
ished at Berlin and St. Petersburg, and died in the latter city. 

Sir William Herschel (1738-1822) — a German by birth, but 
who spent most of his life in England, where he flourished as a dis- 
tinguished astronomer — discovered the planet Uranus in 1781, and 
resolved the Milky-Way into distinct and separate parts. His 
sister, Caroline Herschel, and his son. Sir John Herschel, were great 
astronomers. 

La Place (1749-1827) — the great French mathematician and 
astronomer — in his great work, Mecanique Celeste, treated of math- 
ematical astronomy. 



300 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



Legendre \_ie-zhondr''\ (175 2-1833) — also a great French math- 
ematician — wrote Elements de Geometrie. 

3. Great iuveiitors aud their inventioiis. — A number of great 
inventions contributed to the welfare of the masses; most of which 
were made in England. Navigable canals began to be made, and 
machinery was applied to the spinning and weaving of cotton. 

James Brindley (17 16-17 7 2) — ^.n Englishman and engineer of 
the first navigable canal — was the founder of canal navigation. 

James Hargreaves (i 730-1 778) — an Englishman — invented the 
carding-machme, and the spinning-jenny in 1765. 

Sir Richard Arkwright (i 732-1 792) — an Englishman — in- 
vented the cotton spinning-frame in 1768. 

Crompton (1753-1827) — an Englishman — invented the mule- 
jenny for the spinning of yarn, in 1775. 

Jacquard (i 752-1834) — a native of France — invented the loom 
for figured weaving. 

JosiAH Wedgwood (1731-1795) — an Englishman — invented 
"Queen's ware," and thus improved the porcelain manufacture. 

James Watt (1736— 1 819) — a Scotchman — improved the steam- 
engine, for which he obtained a patent in 1769, and which he 
applied to machinery. 

Eli Whitney (i 765-1825) — a native of Massachusetts — invented 
the cotton-gin in 1793. 

4. Minor inventions. — There were many minor inventions. The 
piano-forte was invented at Dresden in 171 7. Caoutchouc, or 
India-rubber, was brought to Europe from South America in 1730. 
Stereotyping was first practiced by William Ged of Edinburgh. 
The Chronometer, or clock to keep perfect solar or sidereal time, 
to determine the longitude of ships at sea, was constructed by John 
Harrison, an Englishman, in 1742. The Hydraulic Press was in- 
vented by Bramah, an Eiiglishman, in 1786. Gas-lights were first 
used by Murdoch in Cornwall in 1792. Lithography was invented 
in Germany in 1796. An improved system of Stenography, or 
short-hand writing, was introduced. Fahrenheit (1690-1736), a 
Hollander, invented the thermometer bearing his name. John 
Smeaton (i 724-1 792) — an English civil engineer — constructed 
the Eddystone Lighthouse. 

5. Pliilosophy and Metaphysics. — Swedenborg', Edwards, Adam 
Smitli, Keid, and Eant. — Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772) — a 
great Swedish scientist, philosopher, and writer on apocalyptic sub- 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



301 



iects — believed himself to have received divine revelations, and 
founded the New Christian Church. 

Jonathan Edwards (i 703-1 758) — a great American divine and 
metaphysician — wrote An Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will. 

Adam Smith (i 723-1 790) — a Scotchman and professor in Glas- 
gow University — by his great work, The Wealth of Nations, founded 
the science of Politcal Economy. 

Thomas Reid (i 710-1796) — a great Scotch metaphysician and 
philosopher — wrote An Inquiry ittfo the Human Mind. 

Immanuel Kant (i 724-1804) — a great German philosopher and 
metaphysician, partly of Scotch descent, who lived all his life at 
Konigsberg — by his Critique of Pure Reason laid the foundation 
of all subsequent German metaphysics. 

6. English Literature of Queen Anne's Age. — The Age of Queen 
Anne — known as the Augustan Age of English Literature — was 
adorned with the names of Pope, Addison, Steele, Swift, Defoe, 
Bolingbroke, and others. 

The Six Great Writers. 

Alexander Pope (i 688-1 744) — the greatest English poet during 
the first half of the eighteenth century — wrote poetry at twelve, and 
his chief works are his Essay on Man ; Rape of the Lock ; and a 
Translation of Homer. 

Joseph Addison (1672-1719) — a noted political writer — was the 
author of the Spectator and the Tatler, and also wrote Cato, A 
Letter from Italy. 

Sir Richard Steele (1671-1729) aided Addison in writing the 
Tatler and the Spectator. 

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) — a great Irish-English political 
writer and satirist — wrote Gulliver' s Travels, and died insane. 

Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) — an eminent novelist and political 
writer — was the author of Robinson Crusoe. 

Lord Bolingbroke (1678-175 i) — the great Tory statesman dur- 
ing Queen Anne's reign — was an eminent political and infidel 
writer. 

Other Writers. 
Other poets were the Scotch poet, James Thomson (i 700-1 748), 
author of The Seasons; the English poet, Edward Young (1684— 
1765), author of Night Thoughts; and the fine English lyric poet, 
William Collins (i 720-1 756), who died insane. Among English 
divines was Isaac Watts (1674-1748), the great hymnist. 



302 



MODERN ins TOR V. 



7. Engrlisli Literature of Dr. Johnson's Age. — The age of Dr. Sam- 
uel Johnson — comprising the latter half of the eighteenth century — 
produced the following great English novelists, dramatists, historians, 
and poets : 

TAe Two Great Miseellaneous Writers. 

Samuel Johnson (i 709-1 784) — a great English writer — was the 
author of The Lives of the Poets ; Rasselas, an Eastern Tale ; and 
an English Dictionary. 

Edmund Burke (1730-1797) — a famous Irish-English orator and 
statesman — wrote An Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful, and 
Reflections on the French Revolution. 

The Two Great JDratnatists, 

David Garrick (171 6-1 7 79) was a celebrated English dramatist 
and actor. 

Richard Brinsley Sheridan (i 751-18 16) was a great Irish- 
English statesman, Parliamentary orator, lawyer, and dramatist. 

The Five Great Novelists. 

Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) — a celebrated English novelist 
— wrote Pemela, Clarissa Harlowe, ahd Sir Charles Grandison. 

Henry Fielding (i 707-1 754) — a great English novelist — wrote 
Tom Jones, Jonathan Wilde, and Joseph Andreivs. 

Tobias George Smollett (1721-1771) — also a noted English 
novelist — wrote Roderick Random, Peregrine Pickle, and Humphrey 
Clinker. 

Laurence Sterne (i 713-1768) — likewise a great English novel- 
ist and humorist — wrote Tristram Shandy and l^u- Sentimental 
Journey. 

Miss Hannah More (i 745-1833) — wrote dramas and novels, one 
of the best-known of her works being The Shepherd of Salisbury 
Plain. 

The Three Great Historians. 

Edward Gibbon (i 737-1 794) — one of the greatest of English 
historians — wrote The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 

David Hume (1711-1776) — a great Scotch philosopher and his- 
torian — wrote a History of England, a Treatise on Hurnan Nature, 
and Essays. 

William Robertson (i 721-1793) — a famous Scotch historian — 
wrote a Histoty of Scotland, History of America, and History of 
Charles V. of Germany. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



303 



The Four Great Poets. 

Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1778) was a brilliant Irish-English poet, 
historian and novelist ; whose chief poems were The Traveler and 
The Deserted Village^ whose great novel was The Vicar of Wake- 
field, and whose other works were History of England, History of 
Greece, History of Rome, History of Animated Nature, and other 
works. 

Thomas Gray (171 6-1 771) was the greatest lyric poet of England ; 
and his most celebrated poem was his Elegy Written in a Country 
Churchyard. 

William Cowper (i 731-1800) — a famous English poet — wrote 
The Task, John Gilpin, and other poems; and died insane. 

Robert Burns (i 759-1 796) — Scotland's celebrated lyric poet, 
"the Ayrshire plowman" — wrote Highland Mai-y, Bonny Doon, 
Auld Lang Syne, Tarn O' Shanter, and many other songs and 
poems. 

Other Writers. 

Other poets of this period were Thomas Chatterton (1752- 
1770), the boy poet, who committed suicide at the age of seventeen; 
Mark Akenside (i 721-1770), author of Pleasures of the Imagina- 
tion; and James Beattie (i 736-1803) — a noted Scotch poet. 
Other noted writers were Sir William Blackstone (i 723-1 780), 
whose great work on the Laws of England is the standard text-book 
of the legal profession in England and America; Sir William 
Jones (1746-1794), the great philologist and orientalist; Horace 
Walpole (171 7-1 797) — son of the great statesman. Sir Robert 
Walpole, and author of Castle of Otranto and other works ; and 
Thomas Paine (i 736-1809), the great political and infidel writer, 
who by his pen aided the cause of liberty in the American and 
French Revolutions, and who lived in America during the American 
Revolution and was a member of the French National Convention 
during the French Revolution, and died in New York. Paine's 
works were The Crisis, Common Sense, Rights of Man, and Age of 
Reason. 

8. French Literature. — 

Historian and Novelist. 

Rollin \_rol-lang''\ (1661-1741) — a famous French historian — 
wrote an Ancient History. 

La Sage \_lah-sazh''\ (1668-1747) — a great French novelist — 
wroUe Gil Bias \zhil-blaH\ 



304 MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

The Three Great Writers. 

Montesquieu \_mor^-tes-kir\ (1689-1755) — a great French writer, 
whose chief works were Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur 
et de la decadence des Romains ; De V Esprit des Lois (On the Spirit 
of Laws) ; and Lettres Persanes (Persian Letters) — was a skeptic in 
rehgion. 

Voltaire (1694- 1778) — a great French satirist and infidel 
writer — wrote the Henriade, the only French epic poem, and several 
historical works, such as the Age of Louis XIV. and History of 
Charles XII. 

Rousseau \roo'-so'\ (171 2-1 7 78) — a noted French writer and son 
of a Geneva watch-maker — was a skeptic in religion and a writer of 
many operas and plays, and was obliged to leave France for pub- 
lishing liis Contrat Social (Social Contract), in which he advocated 
the equal rights of all men. 

Encyclopedists. 

D' Ai.EMBERT [^/<z-/(?;7^-/;a;r'] (1 7 1 7-1 783) was a great scientist 
and principal contributor to the Encyclopedia. 

Diderot \jiee-de-ro'^ (1713-17S4) was a poet, philosopher, and 
Encyclopedist. 

Condorcet \Ji07ig-dor-sa'^ (i 743-1 794) was a metaphysician and 
Encyclopedist. 

CoNDiLLAC \_kong-de-yak''\ (17 15-1780) was a metaphysician and 
writer for the Encyclopedia. 

Helvetius \hel-ve'-shc-iis'\ (1715-1771) was a philospher and 
writer for the Encyclopedia* 

Other Writers. 

Rouget de l' Isle \roozh del-eel''\ (i 760-1836) — French poet — 
wrote the Marseillaise. 

Volney ( 1 757-1820) was a famous French infidel writer. 

Madame Roland (i 754-1 793) was an enthusiast for liberty and 
author of Memoires. 

Madame de Stael [j/a/z/] (1766-1S17) — daughter of Necker — 
wrote Corinne \_ko-ree?i\ 

Madame de Genlis \_zhong' -le'\ (i 746-1830) was a novelist and 
writer of juvenile works. 

9. Crerman Literature. — 

Historian and ArchcEologist. 
MosHEiM (1694-1755) was a great German church historian. 
WiNCKELMANN (1717-1768) was a great German archaeologist. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



305 



Poets. 

Klopstock (i 724-1803) — a celebrated German poet — wrote 
tragedies and lyrics, and his chief work is the Messiah. 

Lessing (1729-1781) — a distinguished German critic and drama- 
tic poet — wrote Laocoon, Emilia Gaiotti, Nathan the Wise, Minna 
von Barnholm, and other works. 

Goethe [^«'-/<?] (i 749-1 832) — the greatest of German poets — 
wrote Werther, Wilhelm Mcister, and Faust. 

Schiller (i 759-1805) — one of the most illustrious of German 
poets — wrote dramas, such as William Tell and Wallenstein, and 
also a History of the Thirty Years' War. 

Herder (i 744-1803) was a renowned German poet, critic, and 
philosopher. 

WiELAND (i 733-1813) was a famous German poet and novelist. 

10. Other European Literature. — Lavater (i 741-1801) was a 
great Swiss philosopher and writer on physiognomy. 

LoMONOSOFF (1711-1765) was a Russian poet and grammarian. 
Metastasio (1698-1782) was an Italian poet and musical com- 
poser, author of operas, oratorios and sonnets. 

Alfieri (i 749-1803) was the greatest of modern Italian poets. 

11. Great German musical composers. — John Sebastian Bach' 
(1685-1750) was a great German musical composer — the greatest 
that ever lived. 

Handel (1684-1759) — an illustrious German musical composer — 
lived most of his life in England, and his leading oratorios were 
Israel in Egypt, The Messiah, and Judas Maccabce'us. 

Haydn \}i}^-den\ (i 732-1809) — a great German musical composer 
— wrote many oratorios, chief of which was The Creation. 

Mozart (1756-1792) — also a distinguished German musical com- 
poser — wrote Don Giovanni and the Requie?n. 

12. Great English painters. — Canoya, the Italian scnlptor. — Wil- 
liam Hogarth (1697-1764) was a renowned English painter and 
engraver. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds (i 723-1 792) — the first President of the 
Royal Academy — was a great English portrait and landscape painter. 

Thomas Gainsborough (i 727-1 788) was a great English land- - 
scape painter. 

John Singleton Copley (i 737-1815) was bom in Boston, Mas-- 
sachusetts, but flourished in England as a great historical painter. 

Benjamin West (i 738-1820) — born in Chester county, Penn-. 
?x> 



3o6 



MODERN HIS TOR V. 



sylvania, but who lived most of his life in England — was a great his- 
torical painter and also President of the Royal Academy. 

Antonio Canova (175 7-1 82 2) — a great Italian sculptor — was 
celebrated for his many beautiful statues. 

13. Great En§:lisli pMlanthropists. — During the latter part of the 
eighteenth century several great philanthropists of England dis- 
tinguished themselves for their unselfish devotion to the cause of 
humanity. 

John Howard (i 726-1 790) was famous for his labors in the 
cause of prison reform. 

Sir Samuel Romilly (175 7-1 8 18) labored to improve the Eng- 
lish penal laws. 

William Wilberforce (i 759-1833), as a member of Parliament, 
devoted his life to the cause of the abolition of the slave-trade in the 
British colonies, which was effected in 1807, and to the abolition of 
slavery in the colonies, which was accomplished just before his 
death in 1833. 

Thomas Clarkson (i 760-1846) was a worthy co-laborer with 
Wilberforce, in the cause of abolition out of Parliament. 

14. The Wesleys and rise of Methodism in Eng-laad and America. — 

John and Charles Wesley (i 703-1 791 and 170S-1788) — brothers 
and English clergymen of the Established Church — were distin- 
guished as the founders of Methodism., the greatest religious move- 
ment since the Reformation. John Wesley was a preacher and 
writer, who maintained the doctrine that man is capable by his 
-own efforts to obtain salvation — a doctrine directly opposed to the 
creeds of St. Augustine and John Calvin. Charles Wesley was a 
great preacher and hymnist. 

George Whitefield (i 714-1770) — one of the greatest of Eng- 
lish pulpit orators and Methodist divines — adhered to the Augus- 
tinian and Calvinistic creed of predestinatioM. Methodism — which 
arose in England about the middle of the eighteenth century — made 
rapid progress in England and among the English colonists in 
America, and is now the leading denomination in the United States 
of America. 

15. Other sects. — French Skepticism and German Rationalism. — 
Other Protestant sects arose during the eighteenth century ; such as 
the Swedenborgians, or Nciv Christian Church, founded by the 
great Emanuel Swedenborg; the Dunkards and Amish in Germany, 
who in many points of faith, such as simplicity of dress and manners, 

. aversion to military service and the use of law, coincide with the 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR V. 307 

Mennonites and Quakers, and many of whom have settled in the 
United States of America; and the Unitarians, who deny the 
divinity of Christ, and the Universa lists, who reject the doctrine of 
a future punishment, and who arose in England and America. In 
France the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, and the 
Encyclopedists made skepticism in religion almost universal among 
the intelligent classes. In Germany at the same time the writings 
of Kant, Nicolai, Jacobi, and others, also undermined religious 
faith, and gave rise to the Rationalists, who denied all divine reve- 
lation and supernaturalism. The first Sunday-school was founded 
in London in 1781 by Robert Raikes. 

16. Social improvement. — Reform in dress. — During the last half 
of the eighteenth century the social condition of the masses exhib- 
ited a marked improvement. The new inventions brought within 
the reach of the poorer classes many more of the comforts and con- 
veniences of life. Public libraries, mechanics' institutes, clubs, co- 
operative societies, and Sunday-schools, were now introduced. 
About the close of the eighteenth century gentlemen cast aside their 
hanging cuffs and lace ruffles, their cocked hats and wigs, their 
buckles and swords. 

17. Navigation, exploration, and discoveries. — During the eighteenth 
century British navigators were makmg explorations and discoveries 
in the Pacific Ocean, or South Sea, Commodore Anson circum- 
navigated the globe between 1740 and 1742. Numerous discover- 
ies were made by British navigators, such as Byron, Wallis, Cook, 
Vancouver, and others. Captain Cook discovered a number of 
small islands in the Pacific, the most important being the Sandwich, 
or Hawaian Islands, in 1778, where he was killed in a dispute with 
the natives in 1779. The Sandwich Islanders have since been 
largely converted to Christianity by Christian missionaries, and 
many Americans have settled in those islands, while the native popu- 
lation has been duninishing. Behring's Strait was discovered in 
1 741 by Captain Behring, a Dane in the Russian naval service. 

IS. The Wahabees. — In the Mohammedan world, about 1760, Abd 
el Wahab, of Kurdistan, founded the sect of the Wahabees, or 
Wahabites, who denied that the Koran 'was of divine inspiration, 
rejected the mediation of saints, and denied the obligation of vows 
in time of danger. His disciples were highly intolerant, and were 
continually involved in feuds and wars with the neighboring tribes 
in the East of Asiatic Turkey and Arabia, but were suppressed in 
Arabia in 1818 by Mehemet Ali, the powerful Pacha of Egypt. 



3o8 



MODERN HIS TOR V. 

CHAPTER IV. 

NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

SECTION I.— THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE, OR NAPOLEON 
BONAPARTE'S CAREER (i8(x>-i8i5). 

1. Marengo and Hoheulinden. — Peace of Luueville and of Amiens. — 

After obtaining the chief power in France and choosing Talleyrand 
as his chief Minister, Bonaparte sought peace with England and 
Austria, but those two powers refused to treat on any terms but the 
restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne, and the negotia- 
tions failed. After a difficult passage of the Alps "by way of Mt. St. 
Bernard, Bonaparte suddenly appeared on the plains of Northern 
Italy, and General Lannes [/«/?] defeated the Austrians at Monte- 
bello (June 9, 1800) ; and Bonaparte, by his brilliant victory over 
the Austrian General Melas at Marengo (June 14, 1800) — where the 
French General Desaix, who had just returned from Egypt, was 
killed — drove the Austrians from Italy. Moreau's decisive victory 
in Germany over the Austrian Archduke John in the battle of 
Hohenlinden (December 3, 1800), was followed by the Peace of 
Lunevillc between France and Austria (February 9, iSoi). A league 
of Russia, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden against England's mari- 
time power was dissolved by Lord Nelson's victory over the Danish 
fleet at Copenhagen (April 2, 1801), and by the assassination of the 
Czar Paul by Russian nobles (March 24, 1801) and the accession of 
his son and successor, Alexander I. (1801-1825). The capture of 
Malta from the French by the British navy, and the expulsion of the 
French from Egypt by Sir Ralph Abercrombie — who died in the arms 
of victory at Canop'us, near Alexandria (March 21, 1801) — led to 
the Fence of Annens \om-e-ong'A^ between England and France 
(March 27, 1802), England agreeing to evacuate Egypt, Malta, and 
the Cape of Good Hope. 

2. IJona^tarte's reforms. — All Europe was now at peace, and Bona- 
parte instituted many wise reforms in France. In 1802 he was 
made First Consul for life. He founded the Polytechnic School 2X 
Paris; negotiated the Concordat, or compact, with Pope Pius VII. 
for the restoration of religion in France ; instituted the Legion of 
Honor, a new title of nobility founded on personal merit; and 
summoned eminent lawyers to arrange the Code Napoleon — the most 
glorious monument to his memory. The island of Hayti, or St. 
Domingo, after a long and bloody struggle, became independent of 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 309 

France ; the negroes of the island being led by the valiant Toussaint 
Louverture \_too-sang' loo-ve7'-tur'\ 

3. War renewed. — Execution of the Duke d' En^hien. — Napoleon, 
Eniperor of the French. — The peace of Europe was again broken in 
1803 by a renewal of the war between England and France — caused 
by England's refusal to restore Malta to the Knights of St. John 
and the Cape of Good Hope to the Dutch, and Bonaparte's usurpa- 
tions in Holland, Switzerland, and Italy ; followed by England's 
embargo on French vessels in British ports, and Bonaparte's retalia- 
tion by arresting British travelers in France. In 1803 Bonaparte 
again threatened an invasion of England, while a French force oc- 
tupied Hanover ; and late in 1804 Spain formed an alliance with 
France. A plot against Bonaparte resulted in the execution of the 
conspirators, among whom were George Cadoudal and General 
Pichegru, and General Moreau was exiled ; while the young Duke 
d' Enghien \dong-ga7ig''\ — a relative of the Bourbon family — was 
seized in Baden and shot at the castle of Vincennes \z>in-sen^\ after 
a mock trial by court-martial, for supposed complicity in the plot. 
The French Senate created Napoleon Emperor of the French (May 
18, 1804), and he was crowned in the cathedral of Notre Dame 
\no' -ter dame'\, in Paris, by Pope Pius VII. (December 2, 1804). 
In 1805 he was proclaimed King of Italy, being crowned at Milan 
with the iron crown of the Lombards (May 26, 1805); his step-son, 
Eugene Beauharnais, becoming viceroy. 

4. Austerlitz and Trafalgar. — Peace of Presburg' and its results. — 
In 1805 England's great Prime Minister, the younger William Pitt, 
induced Austria, Russia, and Sweden to unite with England in a co- 
alition to check Napoleon's aggressions. After again threatening an 
invasion of England, Napoleon led 180,000 men into Germany, 
and captured Ulm with its Austrian garrison of 35,000 men under 
General Mack, (October 20, 1805); but on the following day 
(October 21, 1805), the French and Spanish fleets were annihilated 
off Cape Trafalgar, on the southwestern coast of Spain, by the 
British fleet under the heroic Lord Nelson, who died in the arms 
of victory, his last words being, " Thank God, I have done my 
duty." Napoleon defeated the Russians at Dirnstein (November 
II, 1805) and entered Vienna November 13, 1805; and on Decem- 
ber 2, 1805 — exactly one year after his coronation^ — he achieved his 
most splendid victory over the united Austrian and Russian armies 
at Austerlitz (" the Three Emperors' Battle"). The next day the 
Emperor Francis II. came to Napoleon's tent to ask for peace ; and 



3IO 



MODERN HISTORY. 



the Peace of Fresburg between France and Austria (December 26, 
1805) cost the proud House of Hapsburg territory containing three 
million inhabitants, while the Electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg 
were recognized as kings. The failure of the allies hurried Mr. Pitt, 
the English Prime Minister, to his grave. In 1806 Napoleon created 
a number of dukedoms in Germany and bestowed them on his lead- 
ing marshals ; while fourteen princes in Southern and Western Ger- 
many formed the Confederation of the R/}ine, and placed themselves 
under Napoleon's protection. The " Holy Roman Empire of the 
German Nation" — which had existed for 1006 years — was now dis- 
solved ; and the Emperor Francis II. had already assumed the title 
oi Francis I., Emperor of Austria (1804). After pronouncing the 
dethronement of Ferdinand, the Bourbon King of Naples, for 
receiving an Anglo-Russian army, Napoleon made his own brother, 
Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples ; and Louis Bonaparte, another 
brother, was created King of Holland. 

5. Jena and Auerstadt. — Eylau aud Friedlaud. — Peace of Tilsit and 
its results. — In the fall of 1806 Napoleon drove King Frederick 
William III. of Prussia into war by repeated insults. The French 
Emperor led 150,000 men into Germany, and Marshal Lannes de- 
feated the Prussians at Saalfeld (October 10, 1806); and in the great 
battles of Jena \_ya' -nahl and Auerstadt \_ow'-er-stet'], fought on the 
same day (October 14, 1806), Napoleon and Marshal Davoust \_da- 
voo''\ completely destroyed the military power of Prussia; the Duke 
of Brunswick, the old companion of Frederick the Great, being 
mortally wounded at Auerstadt. Napoleon entered Berlin (October 

25, 1806), and the Prussian fortresses quickly surrendered to the 
French. The Russians under Benningsen marched to the aid of the 
Prussians, and defeated the French at Pultusk, in Poland (December 

26, 1806); but after the bloody but indecisive battle of Eylau 
[_i'-lou\, in East Prussia (February 8, 1807), Napoleon defeated the 
Russians in the great and decisive battle of Friedland \_freed!-land~\ 
(June 14, 1807), on the anniversary of the battle of Marengo; Mar- 
shal Lefebvre having meanwhile taken Dantzic with its Prussian 
garrison of 17,000 men (May 24, 1807). The Emperors of France 
and Russia met on a raft in the Niemen, and the Feace of Tilsit was 
signed July 7, 1807. The King of Prussia was deprived of half his 
dominions; the eastern portion (Polish Prussia) being formed into 
the Grand-Duchy of Warsaw, and bestowed on the Elector of Sax- 
ony, who now became a king ; and the western portion (Rhenish 
Prussia) being erected into the Kingdom of Westphalia, and be- 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR K 3I I 

stowed on Jerome Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother. The Russian 
Emperor, Alexander I., became Napoleon's ally and agreed to aid 
him in his designs against British commerce. Napoleon's Berlin 
Decree (November, 1806), declaring the British Isles in a state of 
blockade and excluding British manufactures from the ports of 
Continental Europe, established the Co?itine7ital System. Great 
Britain's retaliatory Order-in-Council, declaring the blockade of 
Continental ports from which the British flag was excluded, and 
claiming the right to search and seize all vessels bound for such 
ports, was followed by Napoleon's Milan Decree (December 17, 
1807), threatenmg the confiscation of any vessel submitting to Eng- 
lish search. A four days' bombardment of Copenhagen by the 
British army and navy (September 2-5, 1807) compelled Denmark 
to surrender her navy to England to prevent its use by France; 
whereupon Denmark united with France and Russia in the war 
against England and Sweden. In 1809 — after the dethronement 
of the eccentric Gustavus IV. by the Swedish Diet, and the acces- 
sion of Charles XIII. — Sweden, by the Peace of Frederikshamm, 
ceded Finland to Russia. 

6. The Peoinsular War. — Wellington's victories. — To enforce the 
Continental System, Napoleon sent 30,000 troops under Junot \zhu- 
no'~\ to occupy Portugal, in October, 1807. The Portuguese royal 
family fled to Rio Janeiro, the capital of the Portuguese colony ot. 
Brazil, in South America; and the French entered Lisbon, the Portu- 
guese capital (November 30, 1807). Napoleon then declared : "The 
House of Braganza has ceased to reign. " In 1808 the Bourbon King 
of Spain, Charles IV., was induced by the intrigues of his despicable 
Prime Minister, Godoy, " the Prince of Peace," to resign his king- 
dom to Napoleon; and his son and heir, Ferdinand VII., was held a 
prisoner in France, and Spain was occupied by 100,000 French 
troops. Napoleon bestowed the crown of Spain on his brother, 
Joseph Bonaparte, and that of Naples on his brother-in-law. Marshal 
Murat \_mu-ral^\ The Spaniards and Portuguese resisted the French, 
and England sent armies to aid them. Thus began the famous Penin- 
sular War, which lasted six years. The Grand National Junta at 
Seville, and afterwards at Cadiz, acted in the name of Ferdinand 
VII. The war opened with a series of Spanish victories — namely, 
the capture of a French squadron at Cadiz, the defeat of the French 
Marshal Moncey near Valencia, the successful defense of Saragossa, 
and the capitulation of Dupont's 20,000 French troops at Baylen 
\b)l-le>{\ (July 20, 1808); and the French were driven into the 



212 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

North ofSpain. In Portugal, the English under Sir Arthur Welles- 
ley defeated Junot at Vimiera \_vim-e-a'-ra\ (August 21, 1808); and 
by the Convention of Cintra the French were obliged to evacuate 
Portugal. Napoleon's sudden appearance in Spain was followed by 
three severe Spanish defeats, and Napoleon entered Madrid in tri- 
umph (December 4, 1808). The events in Spain in 1809 were the 
battle of Corunna (January 16, 1809), where the gallant British 
general, Sir John Moore, while embarking hi"^ army for England, 
lost his life while repulsing an attack by Marshal Soult \soolf\ ; the 
capture of Saragossa by the French (February, 1809), after a de- 
fense by the Spaniards under the valiant Palafox as heroic as that 
of Numantia of old ; and the great battle of Talavera \_tal-a-va'-ra] 
(July 28, 1809), where England's renowned general. Sir Arthur 
Wellesley, defeated Marshal Victor's French force, in consequence 
of which Sir Arthur Wellesley was created Lord Wellington. In 
1810 the French under Marshal Massena reduced Ciudad Rodrigo 
\kiue' -oo-dad ro-dre'-go'] and Almeida \_al-ma-e'-da'], but Massena 
was repulsed by Wellington at Busaca [^boo-sah'-kd] (September 27, 
1810); after which Wellington retired behind the fortified lines of 
Torres Vedras, which covered Lisbon. In 181 1 Wellington de- 
feated Massena at Fuentos de Onor (May 5, 181 1); and another 
British and Portuguese force under Marshal Ber'esford beat Marshal 
Soult at Albuera [aI-l>oo-d-rd] (May 16, 1811). In 1812 Welling- 
ton reduced Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz \lmd-a-hoc(f\ defeated 
Marshal Marmont in the great battle of Salamanca (July 22, 1812), 
and occupied Madrid, but afterwards retreated to the frontier of 
Portugal. In 1813 Wellington won the decisive battle of Vittoria 
over Marshal Jourdan (June 21, 1813), reduced San Sebastian and 
Pampeluna, drove the French from Spain, and pursued them across 
the Pyrenees into France. 

7. EckmuVil, Asperu, and Wagram. — Peace of Schoenbruno. — In 
1809 Napoleon became involved in another war with Austria. 
Marching into Germany with a large army Napoleon defeated the 
Austrians under the Archduke Charles at Eckmiihl {ek' -inool^ (April 
22, 1809), after four days of sanguinary fighting, and entered 
Vienna May 13, 1809. After being repulsed at Aspern and Essling 
(May 21 and 22, 1809), where the French Marshal Lannes met his 
death, Napoleon won a victory at Wagram \tvaJi -grani] (July 5 and 
6, 1809), which placed the Austrian Empire at his mercy. By the 
Peace of Schoenbrunn [shain'-broon^ (October 14, 1809), Austria 
relinquished territory containing three million inhabitants. The 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR V. 31 3 

Tyrolese, who had resisted the French and Bavarians, were soon 
reduced to submission ; and their valiant leader, Andreas Ho'fer, 
was shot for treason, by order of a court-martial. 

8. Pope Pius VII. liumbled. — Napoleon's divorce and second mar- 
riag'e. — In 1809 Napoleon quarreled with Pope Pius VII. about the 
Continental System, the Pope refusing to close his ports against 
British goods. Napoleon decreed the annexation of the Papal States 
to the French Empire; and when the Pope, in revenge, excommuni- 
cated the French Emperor, he was seized and carried a prisoner to 
France, where he was detained until 1814. Late in 1809 Napoleon, 
for reasons of state, obtained a divorce from Josephine, to whom 
he was tenderly attached; and early in 1810 he married the Arch- 
duchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis of Austria. 
In March, 1811, a son was born, who received the title of King oj 
Rome. Napoleon's power was now at its height. In 1810 Napoleon 
annexed Holland to the French Empire, his brother Louis having 
resigned his crown, after quarreling with him about the Continental. 
System. In 1810 Charles John Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's 
generals, was elected Crown-Prince of Sweden by the Swedish Diet ; 
becoming the founder of a dynasty which has occupied the thrones 
of Sweden and Norway since the death of Charles XIII. in 1818. 

9. Napoleon's disastrous Russian campaign of 1812. — Moscow burned. 
— The annexation of North Germany to the French Empire had 
aroused the hostility of the Czar Alexander I., and the Continental 
System had injured Russian commerce. In 1S12 the Russian Em- 
peror opened his ports to British commerce, laid a heavy tariff on 
French goods, closed a six years' war with Turkey by the Peace of 
Bucharest \boo' -ka-rest'\, and formed an alliance with England and 
Sweden, in answer to the appeals of Bernadotte, whose opposition 
to the Continental System had aroused Napoleon's anger and led to 
the seizure of Swedish Pomerania and the imprisonment of Swedish 
officials and sailors by the French under Marshal Davoust in North 
Germany. Napoleon now declared his intention of bringing all 
Europe under one government and making Paris the capital of the 
world; and in June, 1812, he invaded Russia with his Grand 
Army, consisting of 500,000 men — Fi-ench, Italians, Germans, 
Austrians, Prussians, and Poles — and advanced toward Moscow, the 
ancient capital and holy city of Russia. After attacking Smolensk, 
which the Russians destroyed and evacuated (August 17, 1812), and 
after defeating Kutusoff's army in the bloody battle of Borodin'o, 
where 90,000 dead and wounded strewed the field (September 7, 



314 



MODERN HIS Ton Y. 



1812), Napoleon entered Moscow (September 15, 1812), but found 
the city deserted by its 300,000 inhabitants. Napoleon took up his 
residence in the Kremlin — the ancient palace of the Czars — and 
prepared to make Moscow his winter-quarters, but the city was soon 
seen to be on fire. Before leaving the city the Russians had fired it 
in several places, and in a few days three-fourths of the city was 
reduced to ashes. As the destruction of Moscow deprived the 
French army of winter-quarters, and as the Czar rejected all Napo- 
leon's peace proposals. Napoleon evacuated Moscow (October 19, 
181 2), and his rear-guard under Marshal Mortier \jnor-U-a''\ blew 
up the Kremlin. Then began the most disastrous retreat on record. 
On November 6, 181 2, a bitter cold Russian winter set in; thus 
adding to the horrors of the retreat. Napoleon's soldiers perished 
by thousands, from the combined effects of cold, hunger, fatigue, 
and continual fighting with the Russians. The retreating army was 
continually harassed by attacks from the Cossacks. In the terrible 
passage of the Beresina \_ber-e-zc'-na] (November 26 and 27, 1812), 
the French lost 36,000 men, who perished in the stream. Upon 
reaching the frontier, the rear-guard under Marshal Ney, "the 
Bravest of the Brave," was reduced to thirty men; the veteran 
marshal himself being the last of the Grand Army to leave Russian 
soil. Napoleon had left the army at Smorgoni (December 5, 181 2), 
and started in a sledge for Paris, where he arrived December 18, 
181 2. In this disastrous campaign Napoleon lost 450,000 men; of 
whom 125,000 were killed in battle; 132,000 died of cold, hunger, 
and fatigue; and 193,000 were made prisoners. 

10. War of German Liberation and fall of Napoleon. — Leipsic. — 
Elba. — Napoleon's great disaster in Russia encouraged the other 
European nations which he had subdued, to throw off the French 
yoke. Early in 1813 Prussia joined Russia and Sweden in the war 
against the French Emperor. Napoleon invaded Germany with a 
new army of 350,000 men, and defeated the Russians and Prussians 
at Lutzen (May 2, 1813) and at Bautzen \_l>oui'-sen^ (May 20 and 
21, 1813). After an armistice and unsuccessful efforts for peace, 
Austria joined Napoleon's enemies, who were also reinforced by a 
Swedish army under Bernadotte, Napoleon's old comrade. Napo- 
leon's victory at Dresden (August 26 and 27, 1813) — where General 
Moreau, fighting on the side of the allies, was mortally wounded — 
was counterbalanced by several French disasters. Vandamme's 
division, pursuing the allies from Dresden, was defeated and cap- 
tured at Kulm, in Bohemia (August 29 and 30, 1S13); Marshal 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



315 



Macdonald was beaten by the Prussian Marshal Blucher \blook'-er\ 
at the Katzbach, in Silesia (August 26, 1813); and the French 
movements on Berlin failed, Oudinot \oo'-de-no\ being beaten at 
Gros-Beeren (August 23, 1813), and Ney being defeated by Berna- 
dotte at Dennewitz (September 6, 18 13). The terrible three days' 
battle of Leipsic (October 16-18, 1S13) — "the Battle of the 
Nations" — between the allied Austrian, Prussian, Russian, and 
Swedish armies, numbering 250,000 men, and Napoleon's army, 
numbering 150,000 men, ended in Napoleon's decisive defeat with 
the loss of 70,000 men, followed by his hasty retreat to the Rhine, 
which he recrossed with only 40,000 men, after cutting through the 
lines of the pursuing Bavarians at Hanau. The battle of Leipsic 
was the death-blow to Napoleon's vast empire; Germany and Hol- 
land recovered their independence ; the Kingdom of Westphalia and 
the Confederation of the Rhine fell to pieces ; the allies were joined 
by the various German princes, and also by the King of Denmark, 
who ceded Norway to Sweden, and by Napoleon's brother-in-law, 
Murat, King of Naples. As Napoleon refused to consent to any 
peace requiring him to surrender his conquests, the allies assembled 
a million men to crush him; and on New Year's night, 1814, 
the Prussian army under Blucher crossed the Rhine and invaded 
France; the Austrian army under Prince Schwarzenberg advanced 
into France through Switzerland ; a Prusso-Russian army entered 
France by way of Belgium; while on the south Wellington, with a 
force of British, Spaniards, and Portuguese, had invaded France 
from Spain. In a three months' campaign on French soil Napo- 
leon's military talents shone resplendent, but the odds against him 
were too great. After being defeated at Brienne, Napoleon won 
repeated victories over Blucher and defeated Schwarzenberg at 
Monterau \_mon-te-ro'\ After Blucher's victory at Laon and the 
indecisive battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, Napoleon maneuvered in the 
rear of the allies to intimidate them into a retreat into Germany; 
whereupon Blucher and Schwarzenberg marched on Paris, and after 
a battle in the suburbs of Montmartre, Belleville, and Romainville, 
Marshals Mortier and Marmont capitulated; and the Emperor of 
Russia and the King of Prussia entered Paris with the allied armies 
(March 31,1814). In the South of France the English under Well- 
ington defeated the French under Marshal Soult at Orthez (Febru- 
ary 27, 1 81 4) and at Toulouse (April 11, 1814). By the Treaty of 
Fontainbleau \_fon-tan'bld'\ (April 11, 181 4), Napoleon was obliged 
to abdicate the thrones of France and Italy, and to accept the sov- 



3i6 



MODERN HISTORY. 



ereignty of the little island of Elba, in the Mediterranean sea, with 
a pension of two million francs. After a sad parting with his 
Imperial Guard at Fontainbleau, Napoleon retired to Elba. Louis 
XVIII. — of the royal house of Bourbon, a brother of Louis XVL — 
returning from his long exile, then became King of France, under a 
Charter, or constitution, giving the French peop)e two legislative 
Chambers ; and by the First Peace of Paris (May 30, 1814), France 
was restricted to the boundaries of 1792. 

11. The Bourbon Restoratiou and the Hundred Days. — Waterloo. — 
St, Helena. — After Napoleon's fall in 181 4 the general tranquillity 
of Europe appeared to be secured, and a Congress of the European 
powers assembled at Vienna (October 2, 1814), for the settlement 
of European affairs. The unpopularity of the restored Bourbons, 
whose conduct proved that they " had learned nothing and forgot- 
ten nothing," made the French people look with longing eyes to 
the exile at Elba. While the Congress of Vienna was still in session, 
Napoleon secretly left Elba, and suddenly appeared at Frejus \Jra- 
zhoos'\ near Cannes \Jian\ on the southern coast of France (March 
I, 1815), with about a thousand men ; and making his way to Paris, 
was everywhere greeted with acclamations by the people, and his 
old veterans joined his standard with the wildest enthusiasm, shout- 
ing " Vive r Empereur ! " When he reached Grenoble, and boldly 
faced the troops, asking if any one would kill his Emperor, the 
garrison under Colonel Labedoydre \_la-bed-zuaw' -yer~\ joined hmi. 
The troops at Lyons also joined him; and Marshal Ney, who had 
been sent against him and who had sworn to bring him to Paris in 
chains, joined him with his troops. Napoleon entered Paris March 
20, 1815, Louis XVIIL having left the city the same day. Then 
began the period historically known as The Hundred Days. Napo- 
leon was again seated on the French throne as Emperor ; but the 
Congress of Vienna outlawed him, and England, Austria, Prussia, 
and Russia again put a million men in the field against him. With 
120,000 men Napoleon advanced into Belgium, in June, 1815, to 
make head against the English under Wellington and the Prussians 
under Blucher. Napoleon defeated Blucher at Ligny \leeri-ye'\ (June 
16, 1815) ; but on the same day Ney was beaten by Wellington at 
Quatre-Bras \kah-ter-brah!\ Two days later (June 18, 1815), 
Napoleon attacked Wellington's army at the village of Waterloo, 
about nine miles Irom Brussels ; and after a tremendous conflict of 
eight hours, Napoleon's celebrated Lnperial Guard was beaten back, 
and his army was thoroughly annihilated, with the loss of 40,000 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



317 



men and all its cannon. The shattered French columns fled to the 
French frontier, followed by the English and Prussians. Napoleon 
arrived in Paris two days after the battle of Waterloo, and again 
abdicated the French throne. Wellington and Blucher entered 
Paris with their armies July 7, and Louis XVIII. was restored to 
the French throne. Napoleon fled to Rochefort \rdsH -for^ intend- 
ing to escape to America ; but finding the harbor closely guarded 
by British cruisers, he surrendered to Captain Maitland, of the 
Beller'ophon. The British Government, without permitting the 
illustrious prisoner to land in England, banished him to the rocky 
islet of St. Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean, where he arrived 
October iS, 181 5. There he died at the age of fifty- two, on the 
night of May 5, 1821, while a terrible storm was raging on the 
island, his last words being, ^^ Tete if armee/^' ("Head of the 
army!") In 1840 his remains were brought to Paris and interred 
in the Hotel des Invalides [^deh-vi-va-kcds'^ 

12. Hiimiliatiou of France. — Fate of Ney and Murat. — Reflection on 
Napoleon. — The battle of Waterloo ended the wars which the French 
Revolution and Napoleon's ambition had kindled, and which had 
convulsed Europe for twenty- three years. The humiliation of 
France was complete; and by the Seco7id Peace of Paris (Novem- 
ber 20, 1815) France was restricted to the boundaries of 1790, and 
required to pay a war-indemnity of 700,000,000 frances and to 
restore the works of art and literature which she had taken from 
other nations, while a foreign army of 150,000 men was to garrison 
the frontier fortresses of France for five years. Marshal Ney and 
Colonel Labedoyere were shot, in accordance with the sentence of 
a court-martial, for treason, in joining Napoleon on his return from 
Elba; and Napoleon's brother-in-law, Murat, King of Naples — 
who had joined the allies in 18 14, but espoused Napoleon's cause 
on his return from Elba — was deposed by the Austrians and their 
Italian allies after being defeated in battle, and was also shot, in 
accordance with the sentence of a court-martial. Such was the 
mournful end of Napoleon Bonaparte's career — the most brilliant 
and extraordinary career of ambition and conquest in the world's 
history. This wonderful man, by his remarkable military talents 
and his force of character, had risen from the condition of an un- 
known and friendless youth to be the greatest warrior of all time 
and the arbiter of the destinies of nations ; and for a time Europe 
was at his mercy. His melancholy fall was a just retribution for 
the eight million human lives sacrificed through his selfish ambition. 



3 1 8 MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

SECTION 11.— PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

1. Washington's Administration (1789-1797). — Indian war. — 
Wliisky Insurrection. — After the National Constitution had received 
the approval of the people of the United States and become the 
Supreme Law of the Land, General Washington was elected the 
first President of the United States, and John Adams, of Massa- 
chusetts, was chosen Vice-President (178S). Washington was inaug- 
urated in New York City, April 30, 1789. The new National 
Government was now thoroughly organized, and the wise measures 
of Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, established the 
credit of the country and set the finances in order. Li 1790 the 
National capital was removed from New York to Philadelphia, and 
a tract of land, ten miles square, on both sides of the Potomac, was 
designated by Congress to become the permanent seat of govern- 
ment in iSoo. The people were divided into two great political 
parties. The Federalists — headed by Alexander Hamilton, Secre- 
tary of the Treasury — were in favor of great centralization of power 
in the National Government. The Republicans, also called Demo- 
O'ats — headed by Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State — were in 
favor of a distribution of political power among the States and the 
people. Washington and Adams were reelected President and Vice- 
President in 1792. Meanwhile, the Indians in the region embraced 
in the present States of Ohio and Indiana began a bloody war against 
the United States, and defeated General Harmer in October, 1790, 
and General St. Clair in November, 1791; but General Wayne de- 
feated them in August, 1795, and compelled them to make peace. 
In 1793 M. Genet \zhe-tia'\ whom the French Republic had sent 
as its Minister to the United States, having fitted out vessels in our 
ports to prey upon the commerce of England, Spain, and Holland, 
then at war with revolutionary France, Washington issued a procla- 
mation of neutrality and caused the French Government to recall 
M. Genet. In 1794 the tax on domestic distilled spirits caused the 
Wliisky Insurrection in Western Pennsylvania, but when the Presi- 
dent sent an army against the insurgents quiet was restored. 
Troubles between Great Britain and the United States threatened 
to end in war, but all trouble was settled by a treaty negotiated 
with Great Britain by John Jay, who had been sent out for the pur- 
pose (1794). Three new States were admitted during Washington's 
Administration — Vermont, in 1791; Kentucky, in 1792; and 
Tennessee, in 1796. Before leaving office Washington issued his 
great Farewell Address to the people of the United States. In 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



319 



1796 John Adams, of Massachusetts, the Federalist candidate, was 
elected President, and Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, the Republican 
candidate, was elected Vice-President. 

2. John Adams's Admiuistration (1797-1801). — Tlireateoed war 
with France. — John Adams was inaugurated the second President, 
March 4, 1797. Troubles with France were about to end in war, 
when Congress appointed three envoys to go to France to settle all 
disputes; but as the French Directory refused to receive the envoys 
unless they paid a large sum of money to France, the United States 
prepared for war. Congress authorized a large army to be com- 
manded by Washington, and hostilities had already commenced on 
the ocean, when peace was made with Napoleon Bonaparte, who 
had overthrown the Directory and become First Counsel of the 
French Republic (1799). The Alien and Sedition Laws — the 
former authorizing the President to expel any alien whom he might 
consider dangerous to the Republic, and the latter directed against 
publications hostile to the National Government — weakened the 
Federalist party, and produced the States-Rights Resolutions of the 
Virginia and Kentucky Legislatures in 1798. The whole Nation 
was thrown into mourning by General Washington's death at Mount 
Vernon, Virginia, December 14, 1799. In the summer of 1800 the 
National capital was removed from Philadelphia to the new city of 
Washington, in the District of Columbia. In 1800 Thomas Jeffer- 
son, of Virginia, the Republican candidate, was elected President 
by the House of Representatives, and Aaron Burr, of New York, 
was elected Vice-President. 

3. Jefferson's Administration (lSOl-1809). — Lonisiana. — Troubles 
witli Eng-land. — President Jefferson was inaugurated March 4, 1801. 
Ohio became a State in 1802. The immense territory of Louisiana 
— then extending from the Mississippi to Mexico and the Pacific — 
was purchased from France by the United States, in 1803, for fif- 
teen million dollars. In 1801 the United States became involved 
in a war with the piratical Barbary state of Tripoli, in Northern 
Africa, and an American squadron under Commodore Preble was 
sent against Tripoli in 1803. The frigate Philadelphia, Captain 
Bainbfidge, was captured by the Tnpolitans, but was afterwards 
burned by Lieutenant Decatur in the harbor of Tripoli (February, 
1804). The Americans bombarded the city of Tripoli in 1804, and 
captured the Tripolitan city of Derne in 1805, whereupon the fright- 
ened Pacha of Tripoli made peace with the United States. In 
1804 Jefferson was reelected President, with George Clinton as Vice- 



2 2 o MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

President, In 1807 Aaron Burr — who had become an outcast by 
killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel — having planned an expedition 
down the Ohio, was arrested and tried on a charge of attempting to 
separate the Western States from the Union, but was acquitted. 
In the same year (1807), the first steamboat — the invention of 
Robert Fulton, of Pennsylvania — made a voyage up the Hudson. 
The wars of Napoleon were at this time raging in Europe; and both 
England and France, in their efforts to damage each other, violated 
the rights of the United States as a neutral nation. Great Britain 
declared the coast of Europe in a state of blockade, and Napoleon 
declared the blockade of the British Islands; and American mer- 
chant vessels were captured by both English and French cruisers, 
and American commerce was destroyed. Great Britain claimed 
the right to search American vessels for British deserters; and on 
June 22, 1807, the British frigate Leopard attacked the American 
frigate Chesapeake, off the Virginia coast, and compelled her to 
surrender four men claimed as deserters from the British navy; but 
the claim was disproven. The President thereupon ordered all 
British armed vessels to leave American waters. Congress also 
passed an 'Embargo Act, which forbade all vessels from entering or 
leaving American ports ; but as the embargo did no good it was 
repealed in 1809, when all intercourse with England and France was 
forbidden. In 1808 James Madison, of Virginia, the Republican 
candidate, was elected President, and George Clinton, of New York, 
was reelected Vice-President. 

4. Madison's Adininistratioii (1809- 1817). — Troubles Trith England. 
— Tippecanoe. — President Madison was inaugurated March 4, 1809. 
England and France still continued their aggressive conduct ; and 
on May 16, 1811, the British sloop-of-war Little Belt made an un- 
provoked attack upon the American frigate President ; but the 
President returned the broadside, killing and wounding thirty-two 
men of the Little Belt's crew. In 181 1 the Northwestern Indians, 
under Tecumseh, became so hostile that General William Henry 
Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory, marched up the Wabash 
with a considerable force, against the Indian camp on Tippecanoe 
Creek; and on the morning of November 7, 181 1, the Indians 
suddenly attacked Harrison's camp, but were repulsed, after a 
desperate fight known as the Battle of Tippecanoe. 

5. (1812). — War with England. — Detroit and Queenstown. — Aineri- 
can naval victories. — Finally, the United States declared war against 
Great Britain, June 19, 1812. Congress made provision for a large 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR V. 321 

army, and General Dearborn was appointed commander-in-chief. 
In July, 181 2, General William Hull, Governor of Michigan Ter- 
ritory, with 2,000 men, crossed the Detroit river into Canada; but 
was driven back to Detroit, where he surrendered his whole army 
and Michigan Territory to General Brock, who had pursued him 
with 2,000 British and Indians. On October 13, 1812, another 
American force, under Colonel Van Rensselaer, crossed the Niagara 
river into Canada, but was defeated in the battle of Queenstown, 
and also compelled to surrender to the British under General Brock, 
who was killed. While the Americans were defeated on land, their 
little navy was victorious at sea. American naval victories during 
1812 were those of the Essex over the A/eri (August 13), the Con- 
stitution over the Gucrriere (August 19), the Wasp over the Frolic 
(October 18), the United States over the Macedonian (October 25), 
and the Constitution over the Java (December 29). But the Wasp 
was captured by the British ship Poirtiers on the very day of her 
victory over the Frolic (October 18). During 181 2 American priva- 
teers captured 300 British vessels and 3,000 prisoners. In the fall 
of 181 2 Madison was reelected President, with Elbridge Gerry, of 
Massachusetts, for Vice-President ; the Federalist party, which op- 
posed the war, gradually becoming weaker and weaker. 

6. (1813). — Frenchtown. — Lake Erie. — Thames. — York. — Stony 
Creek. — Sackett's Harbor. — Creek War. — General Winchester's Ken- 
tuckians were defeated by the British and Indians under Colonel' 
Proctor at Frenchtown, Michigan (January 22, 1813); and the- 
next morning the Indians massacred the sick and wounded Ameri- 
cans. In North-western Ohio, the British and Indians under Proctor 
and Tecumseh conducted two unsuccessful sieges of Fort Meigs. 
(May and July, 1813) ; and were repulsed in an attack upon Fort 
Stephenson, which was bravely defended by young Major Croghan. 
On September 10, 1813, the American fleet under Commodore 
Oliver H. Perry gained a brilliant victory over the British fleet 
under Commodore Barclay at the western end of Lake Erie,, com- 
pelling the whole British fleet to surrender. General Harrison's . 
army then crossed Lake Erie into Canada, and defeated and de- 
stroyed Proctor's army in the battle of the Thames {temz\ (October- 
5, 1813), the Indian chief Tecumseh being killed. By these two • 
great victories, Michigan was recovered, and the war in the North- 
west was ended. On the Niagara frontier and the shores of Lake ■ 
Ontario, the Americans under General Dearborn were success- 
ful in 1813. The Americans drove the British from. York, (now ■ 



322 



MODERN HIS TOR V. 



Toronto), in Canada — where the American General Zebulon N. 
Pike was killed (April 27, 1813) — and also from Fort George, on 
the Canada side of the Niagara river (May 27, 1813) ; defeated the 
British at Stony Creek, in Canada (June 6, 1813); and repulsed a 
British attack upon Sackett's Harbor, New York (May 29, 1813). 
General Wilkinson, Dearborn's successor, led his army against 
Montreal; but after the indecisve battle of Chrysler's Field, on the 
St. Lawrence, in Canada (November 11, 1813), the enterprise was 
abandoned. In December (181 3) the Americans burned Newark, 
on the Canada shore of the Niagara; whereupon the British retali- 
ated by burning Buffalo and other towns, on the New York side of 
the river. Tecumseh induced the Creek Indians in Alabama to 
make war on the white people, and on August 30, 1S13, about 1500 
Creeks surprised Fort Mimms, on the Alabama river, and massacred 
almost 300 men, women, and children ; but the Creeks were sub- 
dued by General Andrew Jackson, who, with 2,500 Tennesseans, 
defeated the Indians in a number of battles, the last of which was 
at Tohopeka, March 27, 1S14. During the summer of 1S13 the 
British fleet under Admiral Cockburn burned towns on Chesapeake 
bay, but was repulsed in an attack upon Norfolk, Virginia (June 22, 
1813). American victories on the ocean in 1813 were those of the 
Hornet over the Peacock (February 24), and the Enterprise over 
the Boxer (September 5). American naval defeats were those of 
the Chesapeake by the Shannon (June i), and the Argus by the 
JPelican (August 14); Captain Lawrence, of the Chesapeake, being 
killed. 

7. (1814). — Chippewa and Lnii(I}''s Lane. — Plattsl)!!!*^:. — Washington 
.and B:dtimore. — Generals Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott crossed 
■the Niagara river into Canada and captured Fort Erie (July 3, 1814), 
defeated the British at Chippewa (July 5, 1S14), and fought an in- 
decisive battle at Lundy's Lane, both Brown and Scott being 
■wounded (July 25, 1814). A British attack upon Fort Erie was 
repulsed (August 15, 1814), and the British besiegers were driven 
away (September 17, 1814) ; but in November (1814) the Americans 
destroyed Fort Erie, and finally retired from Canada. A British 
fleet was repulsed in an attack on Stonington, Connecticut (August 
9-12, 1814). On September 11, 1814, the American army and 
navy under General Macomb and Commodore McDonough won a 
■ decisive victory at Plattsburg, New York, on Lake Champlain ; the 
British army under Sir George Prevost fleeing to Canada, and the 
whole British fleet under Commodore Dovvnie surrendering to Mc- 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 323 

Donongh. In August, 1S14, the British under General Ross in- 
vaded Maryland, defeated the Americans at Bladensburg (August 
24, 1814), captured Washington the same da)^, and burned the 
Capitol and the President's House. Ross then proceeded against 
Baltimore, but was killed in a skirmish, and the Americans were de- 
feated at North Point (September 12, 181 4); while the British fleet 
unsuccessfully bombarded Fort McHenry for several days (Septem- 
ber 12-14, 18 1 4), after which the British fleet and army withdrew. 
The British having supplied the Creeks with arms from Florida, 
General Jackson invaded Flordia and seized Pensacola (November 
7, 1814). The Essex, Captain David Porter, was captured by the 
British vessels Phahe and Cherub, in the Pacific, off Valparaiso, 
South America, March 28, 181 4. American victories at sea dur- 
ing 1814 were those of the Peacock over the Epervier (April 29), 
the Wasp over the Reindeer (June 28), and the Wasp over the 
Avon (September i). 

8. (1815). — Battle of New Orleans and end of the war. — Short war 
with Algiers. — A British army of 12,000 veterans under General 
Pakenham having invaded Louisiana, General Jackson hastened to 
New Orleans with 6,000 Tennessee and Kentucky militia ; and on 
January 8, 18 15, Pakenham attacked Jackson's intrenched camp 
at New Orleans, but was defeated and killed, with the loss of 2,000 
men, the Americans losmg but thirteen. The frigate President, Com- 
modore Decatur, was captured by a British fleet, January 16, 181 5. 
American naval victories in 181 5 were those of the Constitution 
over the Cyane and Levant (February 20), and the Hornet over the 
Penguin (March 23). About two weeks before the battle of New 
Orleans^ but before the news of the treaty had reached America, a 
treaty of peace had been signed by American and British com- 
missioners at Ghent, in Belgium (December '24, 1814) ; and peace 
was proclaimed in America, February 18, 1815, and the United 
States, truly independent, started on a new and glorious career. In 
181 5 a United States naval expedition under Commodore Decatur 
humbled the piratical Barbary state of Algiers, and compelled the 
Dey to release all captive American seamen, to indemnify all 
American property destroyed, and to renounce all claims to tribute 
from the United States in future. Louisiana became a State in 181 2, 
and Indiana in 1816. In 1816 James Monroe, of Virginia, the 
Republican candidate, was elected President, with Daniel T. Tomp- 
kins, of New York, as Vice-President ; the Federalist party having 
become odious to the people, because of its anti-war attitude. 



324 



MODERN HI ST OR Y. 



9. Monroe's Admimsti-ation(1817"182o.) — Florida. — Missouri Com- 
promise. — Monroe Doctrine. — President Monroe was inaugurated 
March 4, 181 7. In 181 7 the Seminole and Creek Indians in the 
South, excited by British agents under the protection of the Spanish 
authorities in Florida, again attacked the white people in Georgia 
and Alabama; whereupon General Jackson again invaded Florida, 
seized Pensacola, and hung two British agents, who had incited the 
Indians to war; and in 1819 Spain ceded Florida to the United 
States. The Great West peopled rapidly, and five new States were 
admitted during Monroe's Administration — Mississippi, in 1817; 
Illinois, in 1818; Alabama, in 1819 ; Maine, in 1S20; and Missouri, 
in 1 82 1. Monroe and Tompkins were reelected almost unani- 
mously in 1820, and the old Federalist party ceased to exist. When 
the admission of Missouri was proposed in 1820, violent debates 
began in Congress and among the people as to whether it should be 
admitted as a Free or a Slave State ; and a compromise measure 
proposed by Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and known as the Missouri 
ComprojJiise, was finally passed by Congress and became a law, by 
which Missouri was admitted as a Slave State (August 21, 1821), 
and slavery was to be allowed in all territory south of a line drawn 
from its southern boundary to the Pacific, and prohibited in all 
territory north of this line and west of Missouri. In 1822 the 
United States recognized the independence of the Spanish American 
republics, when President Monroe issued a proclamation wherein 
he asserted that " the American continents are henceforth not to be 
considered as subjects for future colonization by any European 
power;" thus establishing the '■'■ Monroe Doctrine.'''' In 1824 and 
1825 General Lafayette visited the United States as the Nation's 
guest, and was everywhere welcomed with enthusiasm. In 1824 
John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts — son of John Adams — was 
elected the sixth President, with John C. Calhoun, of South Caro- 
lina, as Vice-President ; the President being elected by the House 
of Representatives over three rival candidates — Henry Clay, Gen- 
eral Andrew Jackson, and William R. Crawford. 

10. John Quincy Adams's Administration (1825-1829). — Remark- 
able coincidence. — John Quincy Adams was inaugurated President 
March 4, 1825. The assumption of State supremancy by the State 
of Georgia, in the attempted forcible removal of the Cherokee 
Indians from that State, against the decision of the National Gov- 
ernment, menaced civil war; but was succeeded by an "Era of 
Good Feeling." A remarkable coincidence occurred July 4, 1826 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



325 



— the fiftieth anniversary of American Independence — in the death 
of John Adams, of Massachusetts, and Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia 
(both of whom had been the leading advocates of independence and 
signers of the Declaration, and both of whom had also been Ameri- 
can Ministers abroad, and also Vice-Presidents and then Presidents 
of the United States). In 1825, through De Witt Clinton's exer- 
tions, the great Erie Canal, in New York State, was completed ; 
and in 1827 the first railroad in the United States was built in 
Quincy, Massachusetts. The American System — or protective tariff, 
encouraging American industry by heavy duties upon imported 
foreign manufactures — was adopted during the Administration of 
John Quincy Adams, and was warmly advocated by the manufac- 
turers of the North and opposed by the planters of the South. In 
1828 General Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, the Democratic can- 
didate, was elected President, and John C. Calhoun, of South Car- 
olina, was reelected Vice-President ; the opposing Presidential can- 
didate being Henry Clay, of Kentucky. 

11. Jackson's Adiiiinistration (1829-1837). — United States Bank. — 
Black Hawk War. — N unification. — Seminole War. — President Jackson 
was inaugurated March 4, 1829. In 1832 he vetoed a bill for the 
recharterof the United States Bank, and in 1833 he caused the de- 
posits to be removed from the bank, which ceased to exist in 1836; 
and the result was a great financial convulsion and much excitement 
throughout the country. In 1832 the Indians on the Illinois fron- 
tier, headed by Black Hawk, began a war against the white people; 
but the Indians were soon subdued, and Black Hawk was made a 
prisoner. In 1832 Jackson was reelected, with Martin Van Buren, 
of New York, as Vice-President. In November, 1832, the people 
of South Carolina, led by John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne, 
attempted to nullify the tariff laws, and threatened to resist, by 
force of arms, the collection of duties in the port of Charleston ; 
but President Jackson warned the nuUifiers that the laws would be 
enforced by military power, if necessary; and the nullifiers submit- 
ted, and gladly accepted the Tariff Compromise proposed in 1833 ^y 
Henry Clay, providing for a gradual reduction of the obnoxious 
duties. In 1833 a famous debate occurred in the United States 
Senate, on the States-Rights question, between Daniel Webster, of 
Massachusetts, and Robert Y. Hayne, of South Carolina. The 
already partially-civilized Creek and Cherokee Indians of Georgia 
were, after some trouble, removed into the Indian Territory ; but 
the Seminole Indians of Southern Florida, led by their chief, Osce- 



326 MODERN HIS TORY. 

ola \os-e-o'-la\ resisted an attempt to forcibly remove them to the 
same distant region, and began a war against the United States, by 
several shocking massacres. A number of indecisive battles were 
fought, and the war lasted seven years. Arkansas became a State 
in 1836, and Michigan in 1837. In 1836 Martin Van Buren, of 
New York, the Democratic candidate, was elected President, with 
Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, as Vice-President; the opposing 
candidate being General William Henry Harrison, of Ohio. 

12. Van Buren's Admiuistration (1837-1S41). — Financial conrul- 
sion. — Seminole War. — President Van Buren was inaugurated March 
4, 1837. His Administration was characterized by a most disas- 
trous financial and business convulsion, from which the country did 
not recover for several years. The Seminole War in Florida still 
continued, and Osceola was treacherously made a prisoner in Octo- 
ber, 1837, and died in captivity at Fort Moultrie, in Charleston 
harbor. The Indians were defeated in a number of battles, but the 
war was not ended until 1842. Troubles with Great Britain — on 
account of Americans aiding the rebellion in Canada in 1837 and 
1838, and because of the disputed boundary between Maine and 
New Brunswick — were soon settled. In 1840 General William 
Henry Harrison, of Ohio, the Whig candidate, was elected Presi- 
dent, with John Tyler, of Virginia, as Vice-President; President 
Van Buren being the Democratic candidate. 

13. Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations (1841 - 1845). — Annex- 
ation of Texas. — President Harrison was inaugurated March 4, 1841 ; 
but exactly one month afterward (April 4, 1841) he died, and was 
succeeded as President by the Vice-President, John Tyler, who 
offended the party that elected him by vetoing two separate bills for 
the recharter of the United States Bank ; whereupon all his Cabinet 
except Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, resigned. In 1843 ^ 
threatened civil war in Rhode Island about the mode of adopting a 
new State constitution, was prevented by United States troops. In 
1844 the electro-magnetic telegraph — the invention of Professor 
Samuel Finley Breese Morse — was first used, in sending the news 
from Baltimore to Washington about the nomination of James Knox 
Polk, of Tennessee, as the Democratic candidate for President. 
Polk — who favored the annexation of the independent republic of 
Texas (which had achieved its independence of Mexico by the battle 
of San Jacinto in 1S36, where President Santa Anna of Mexico was 
defeated and made a prisoner) — was elected President, with George 
M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, as Vice-President ; Henry Clay, of 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 



327 



Kentucky, being the Whig candidate. Florida was admitted into 
the Union March 3, 1845. 

14. Polk's Administration (1845-1849.)— War with Mexico.— 
Taylor's victories. — Buena Vista. — President Polk was inaugurated 
March 4, 1845. On July 4, 1845, Texas formally approved the 
resolution of annexation passed by the United States Congress, and 
became a State of the Union. Mexico, which had never recognized 
the independence of Texas, still claimed that State as a part of her 
territory; and in the spring of 1846 Mexican troops were sent into 
Texas. General Zachary Taylor, who had been sent into Texas with 
2,000 United States troops as an "Army of Occupation," defeated 
6,000 Mexicans under Arista \a-rees' -ta\ at Palo Alto \J>a'-lo awl' -to] 
(May 8, 1846), and at Resaca de la Palma [ra-sa-u/ -ka da-lah-pah'- 
ma] (May 9, 1846). On May 11, 1846, the United States Govern- 
ment declared war against Mexico ; and Taylor crossed the Rio 
Grande \_re'-o gfan'-da'] into Mexico, and captured the Mexican city 
Matamoras (May 18, 1846). After advancing farther into Mexico, of 
Taylor took the city of Monterey by storm, with 9,000 Mexican 
troops under General Ampudia \am-poo' -de-a}i\ (September 24, 
1846); and with only 5,000 men Taylor defeated 22,000 Mexicans 
under President Santa Anna, at Buena Vista \boo'-na vees'-ta] (Feb- 
ruary 23, 1847), which closed Taylor's operations. In the mean- 
time General Kearney and Colonel Fremont, assisted by the navy 
under Commodores Sloat and Stockton, conquered California from 
the Mexicans; while Colonel Doniphan, with 1,000 Missouri volun- 
teers, conquered New Mexico, and invaded Northern Mexico, cap- 
turing Chihuahua [she-wah' -wa/i], and defeating the Mexicans at 
Bracito [^bra-s^-to] (December 25, 1846), and Sacramento (Febru- 
ary 28, 1847). 

15. Scott's victories. — Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, and the city of 
Mexico. — Peace. — In March, 1847, General Winfield Scott landed at 
Vera Cruz [zui'-ra krooz], on the eastern coast of Mexico, with 12,- 
000 men, and after a vigorous siege and bombardment, captured 
Vera Cruz and its strong castle, with its garrison (March 26, 1847); 
defeated 30,000 Mexicans under President Santa Anna at Cerro 
Gordo \_se'-ro gor'-do] (April 18, 1847); took possession of the 
strong fortress of Perote [/^-ry-Z^] (April 22, 1847); and, advancing 
to the city of Mexico, stormed and took the strong Mexican positions 
of San Anto'nia, Contre'ras, and Churubusco \jchoo-roo-boos' -kd] (Au- 
gust 20, 1847), captured Molino del Rey \mo-ld-no del-ra] by as- 



5 2 8 MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

sault (September 8, 1847), ^rid Chapul'tepec (September 13, 1847), 
and entered the city of Mexico as conqueror on the 14th of Septem- 
ber, 1847. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848) 
ended the war, Mexico ceding California and New Mexico to the 
United States, in return for fifteen million dollars. Iowa became a 
State in 1846, and Wisconsin in 1848. In 1848 General Zachary 
Taylor, of Louisiana, the Whig candidate, was elected President, with 
Millard Fillmore, of New York, as Vice-President; Lewis Cass, of 
Michigan, being the Democratic candidate, and ex-President Van 
Buren the Free Soil candidate. 

SECTION III.— NEW STATES-SYSTEM, AND REVOLUTIONS OF 
1820, 1830, AND 1848. 

1. The Congress of Vienna and the new States-System. — The Con- 
gress of Vienna in 1815 had reconstructed the map of Europe; re- 
storing to the different powers the territories which Napoleon had 
wrested from them. Holland and Belgium became one kingdom, 
entitled The Netherlands, under the House of Orange, or Nassau. 
Poland became a separate kingdom, with a Diet and constitution of 
its own, under the Czar of Russia. Norway was transferred from 
the King of Denmark to the King of Sweden. Prussia recovered 
all her lost territories, and received in addition a large part of Sax- 
ony. Saxony. Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Hanover were recognized 
as kingdoms. The Tyrol and Lombardy were restored to Austria. 
The kmgdom of Sardinia and the Swiss Republic were restored, as 
was also the Bourbon dynasty in Naples. The Bourbons were also 
restored in Spam and the House of Braganza in Portugal. Austria, 
Prussia, and the German states were united into a league called the 
Germanic Confederation, whose Diet was to assemble regularly at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main, and the Austrian representative was to pre- 
side over the Diet. The new '* States-System" thus established was 
to be maintained by Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and 
Russia — which were recognized as the Five Great Powers — whose 
duty was to preserve the peace of Europe and to manage European 
affairs exclusively. The principal plenipotentiaries in the Congress 
of Vienna were the Emperor Alexander of Russia, Prince Metter- 
nich of Austria, Talleyrand of France, and Lord Castlereagh ot 
Great Britain. 

2. Tlie Holy Alliance. — On September 25, 1815, the three great 
absolute monarchs — Alexander I. of Russia, Frederick William III. 
of Prussia, and Francis I. of Austria — formed a league called the 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 329 

Holy Alliance, by which they bound themselves, " that, in accord- 
ance with the principles of holy scripture, they would, as brothers, 
assist each other on every occasion." This formidable league of 
crowned-heads was eventually joined by all the European sovereigns 
except the Pope and the British monarch. This league, under the 
mask of piety and religion, became an instrumentality for the sup- 
pression of all democratic and liberal tendencies, and for the ad- 
vancement of the principles of absolute despotism. 

3. Royalist reaction in France.— After the Bourbon Restoration, 
France was distracted by the contests of parties ; the Royalists, or 
While Jacobins, engaging in the most violent persecution of the 
Bonapartists and the Republicans, who were massacred in large 
numbers at Marseilles, Nismes \_fieem'], Toulon, Toulouse, Avignon, 
and Lyons. King Louis XVIIL endeavored to pursue a moderate 
course, but was unable to restrain the wild fury of the Royalists, who 
advocated the most violent proscription against the authors of the 
Revolution. Louis XVIIL died in 1824, and was succeeded on the 
French throne by his brother, Charles X. 

4. Social strug-g-le in Eng-Iand. — During the Napoleonic wars Eng- 
land had enjoyed a period of commercial and business prosperity ; 
but the return of peace had turned the attention of the people of 
Continental Europe to manufacturing the articles which they had 
during the wars purchased from the English ; and the consequence 
was the decline of English commercial and manufacturing pros- 
perity, and the resulting distress of the English workingmen. This 
social distress caused great discontent in England, which was ag- 
gravated by the increased national debt, in consequence of the large 
subsidies with which England had furnished her Continental allies. 
A conspiracy against the Government led to tyrannical repressive 
measures in 181 7, and in 181 9 a large and peaceable Reform de- 
monstration at Manchester was suppressed by the military. In 181 6 
a British naval expedition under Lord Exmouth bombarded the 
city of Algiers and forced the Dey to release his Christian captives. 
George III. — who during the last ten years of his life was insane — 
died early in 1820, after a reign of sixty years — the longest reign in 
English history; and was succeeded as king by his son, George IV., 
who had acted as prince-regent during his father's insanity. 

5. Aspirations for constitutional liberty in Germany. — In Germany 
the princes forgot their promises to give their people liberal con- 
stitutions and representative government, and sought to stifle the 



230 MODERN HISTOR V. 

desire for German unity, which was kept alive by the students in 
the universities. An outburst of youthful enthusiasm at the third 
centennial of the Reformation, which happened to be the fourth 
anniversary of the battle of Leipsic (October i8, 1817), caused the 
sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia to denounce the German 
student society at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1818. Augus- 
tus von Kotzebue, the famous dramatist and Russian Consul-General 
in Germany, having ridiculed the student demonstration through 
the press, was assassinated at Mannheim by a student from Jena, 
named Sand, in 1819; and the German statesmen, believing that a 
widespread conspiracy existed among the students, suppressed the 
freedom of the universities, filling the prisons with students. 

e. Spanish Revolution of 1820- '23.— After the restoration of the 
Bourbon king, Ferdinand VII., to the Spanish throne, m 1814, Spain 
was distracted by internal troubles. Ferdinand proved himself an 
intolerable tyrant. He violently persecuted the Spanish liberals 
and restored the Inquisition. His despotic course produced an in- 
surrection in 1820, which' forced the king' to grant the liberal Cortes 
Constitution of 1812 to his subjects; but the Holy Alliance resolved 
to suppress this constitution by force of arms, and in 1823 a French 
anny of 120,000 men, under the Duke d' Angouleme li/o/!o^-goo- 
lame''], invaded Spain and restored the absolute power of King 
Ferdinand VII. 

7. Portuguese ReTolution (1820-1834).— Portugal was disturbed 
by constitutional struggles as well as Spain. The Portuguese peo- 
ple were dissatisfied with the continued residence of the royal family 
in Brazil, and in 1820 insurrections at Lisbon and Oporto forced 
the granting of a liberal constitution in Portugal also. In 1822 
Brazil became independent of Portugal; and in 1826 the crown of 
Portugal fell to Dom Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil, who soon relin- 
quished Portugal to his infant daughter. Donna Maria da Gloria, 
and granted the Portuguese a liberal constitution. But Dom 
Miguel, Dom Pedro's cousin, aspired to the throne of Portugal; 
and the result was a civil war between Dom Miguel and Dom Pedro ; 
the latter of whom, having been compelled to abdicate the crown 
of Brazil in favor of his infant son, Dom Pedro II., in 1831, now 
returned to Portugal. After a bloody struggle of two years (1832- 
1834), the constitutional or liberal party siding with Dom Pedro 
and his daughter, who were also aided by England and France, 
Dom Miguel was defeated and driven off, and the constitutional 
party triumphed. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



331 



8. Revolutions in Italy (1820 -'21). — Italy was also distracted by 
constitutional struggles ; the strength of the liberal cause being in a 
powerful secret society called the Carbonari. An insurrection in 
July, 1820, compelled King Ferdinand of Naples to grant his sub- 
jects a liberal constitution ; but, at the command of the Holy Alli- 
ance, an Austrian army marched into Naples and restored King 
Ferdinand's absolute power. In March, 1821, an insurrection in 
Piedmont compelled the abdication of King Victor Emmanuel I. 
of Sardinia in favor of his brother, Charles Felix, who granted a 
liberal constitution ; but this constitution was also overthrown by 
an Austrian army, which had marched into Piedmont at the demand 
of the Holy Alliance, and defeated the Piedmontese revolutionists 
at Novara. 

9. The Spanish American Revolutions (1810-1825).— The Texan 
Revolution. — For three hundred years, Mexico, or New Spain, and 
most of South America had groaned under Spain's tyranny; the 
Spanish Americans being forbidden to produce anything not pre- 
scribed by Spain, and not being allowed to engage in any manu- 
facturing industry, nor to trade with any nation except Spain, under 
pain of death. Popular insurrections broke out in Mexico and 
South America in 1810. San Martin freed Buenos Ayres \bo'-nos 
{-res\, Chili \_shef -le\ and Peru, by his victories at Chacabaco and 
Maypu, in Chili (February 12, 1817, and April 5, 1818); and 
Simon Bolivar liberated Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador \ek'- 
wa-dor'], by his victories at Boyaca and Carabobo, in Colombia 
(August 7, 1819, and June 24, 1S21). The chief revolutionary 
leaders in Mexico were Hidalgo and Morales, and afterwards Itur- 
bide \_e-foor'-l?e-da']. Spanish power was forever swept from the 
American contment by the decisive victories of the Colombians 
under General Sucre \_su-krd''\ at Junin [^yu'-nift] and Ayacucho 
\J-a-koo'-cho~\, in Peru (August 6 and December 9, 1824). The 
Spanish Americans received aid from Great Britain and the United 
States. The Spanish colonies in Central and South America be- 
came independent republics, and one of them — Bolivia — was 
named in honor of General Simon Bolivar. Mexico first became 
an independent empire under Iturbide, but he quarreled with the 
Mexican Congress and was driven off in 1823, and afterwards 
returning was shot; and in 1824 Mexico became an independent 
republic. General Guadalupe Victoria being the first President. 
Paraguay was ruled by the Dictator, Dr. Francia, from 181 2 to 
1840. Since the establishment of their independence, Mexico and 



3-2 MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

the South American republics have been constantly distracted by 
revolutions and civil wars. The Mexican province of Texas — 
settled by emigrants from the United States — revolted against Mex- 
ico in 1835; and the Mexicans captured the fortress of the Alamo, 
which they only entered over the dead bodies of the 150 Texans 
who defended it (December, 1835); but the Texans declared their 
independence, and 783 Texans under General Samuel Houston de- 
feated 1600 Mexicans under President Santa Anna in the battle of 
San Jacinto (April 21, 1836), Santa Anna being taken prisoner. 
After being an independent republic nine years (1836-1845), Texas 
was annexed to the United States. 

10. The Greek Revolution (1821-1829).— mssolon^lii.—Nararino. 
— Russo-Turkish war of 1828-'?). — For three and a half centuries 
Greece had groaned under the barbarous yoke of Turkish despotism ; 
but about the close of the eighteenth century a secret society called 
the Hctoc'ria began to further a desire for Grecian independence. 
On March 7, 1821, Alexander Ypsilanti proclaimed the indepen- 
dence of Greece from Moldavia, and assured hi^ countrymen of 
Russian aid in the approaching struggle; but the Czar Alexander 
and the other crowned-heads of the Holy Alliance sternly refused 
to countenance any rebellion against constituted authority. In 
response to Ypsilanti's proclamation, an insurrection broke out in 
the Morea and rapidly spread throughout Greece. The rage of the 
Turks became indescribable; and the gray-haired Gregorias, Patri- 
arch of Constantinople, the supreme head of the Greek Church, was 
hung before his church-door, with a number of his bishops, on 
Easter-day, 1821; while the Greeks in the Turkish capital were 
massacred or banished. Ypsilanti's Sacred Band was annihilated 
in the battle of Dragaschan, in Wallachia (June 19, 182 1), and the 
fugitive Ypsilanti was imprisoned for years in an Austrian fortress. 
In January, 1822, a Greek Congress assembled at Epidaurus, and 
established a provisional government under Alexander Mavrocorda'- 
tos. For six years (1821-1827) the war between the Greeks and 
the Turks raged with the most frightful ferocity, both parties com- 
mitting the most dreadful atrocities. Many of the Turkish vessels 
were blown up by Greek fire-ships. In 1822 the Turks desolated 
the island of Scio \ji'-o\, and put 40,000 Greeks to the sword. In 
1823 the brave Suliot leader, Marco Bozzaris \bot-zar' -is\, with 500 
men, defeated a large Turkish host, but died in the arms of victory, 
exclaiming : " Could a Suliot leader die a nobler death !" In the 
meantime popular sympathy was strongly manifested in Europe and 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



IZl 



America for the Greek patriots, and Philhellenic societies were 
formed to aid the Greek cause ; while volunteers flocked to Greece 
from every part of Europe, among whom was the illustrious English 
poet, Lord Byron, who died at Missolonghi, April 19, 1824. In 
1825 the Sultan of Turkey induced his powerful vassal, Mehemet 
Ali, Pacha of Egypt, to send his son, Ibrahim Pacha, with 25,000 
Egyptian troops, to aid the Turks in subduing the rebellious Greeks. 
Ibrahim Pacha desolated the Morea; and finally, in April, 1S26, 
took Missolonghi, after a heroic defense on the part of the Greeks, 
the Greek garrison of 1,800 men blowing up the last fort and 
perishing beneath its ruins, rather than fall into the hands of the 
enemy. The fall of Athens in 1827 seemed to ruin the cause of the 
Greeks, but their deliverance was at hand. The Czar Nicholas of 
Russia (1825-1855), the brother and successor of Alexander I., was 
favorable to the Greek cause ; and — at the proposal of the great 
English statesman and Prime Minister, Canning — England, France, 
and Russia concluded a treaty at London (July 6, 1827) to secure 
the independence of Greece. On October 20, 1827, a combined 
English, French, and Russian fleet, under the English admiral. Sir 
Edward Codrington, annihilated the Turco-Egyptian fleet in the 
harbor of Navarino \iiav-a-re' -nd\. The Sultan, in a rage, expelled 
the ambassadors of the three allied powers from Constantinople, 
War followed between Russia and Turkey, and the Turks were de- 
feated by the Russians in both European and Asiatic Turkey; and 
by the Peace of Adrianople (September 20, 1829) the Ottoman 
Porte was compelled to acknowledge the independence of Greece. 
In 1 83 1 the Greek President, Count John Capo d'lstria \_ka'-po 
dees' -tre-d], was assassinated; and early in 1833, Prince Otho of 
Bavaria became King of Greece, the country having been made a 
constitutional monarchy. 

11. French Revolution of 1830. — No sooner had Charles X. as- 
cended the French throne in 1824, than he entered upon a violent 
reactionary course, appointing unpopular Ministers, who undertook 
various measures abridging popular freedom. In 1830 Prime Min- 
ister Polignac \_po-leen-yak''\ dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, 
but the elections returned a larger Liberal majority, whereupon the 
king issued three ordinances — one dissolving the newly-elected 
Chamber of Deputies, another disfranchising a large class of voters, 
and a third directed against the freedom of the press. The king's 
arbitrary ordinances produced a revolution in Paris; and after a 
struggle of three days in the streets of Paris between the citizens and 



334 MODERN HISTORY. 

the royal troops under Marshal Marmont (July 27, 28, and 29, 
1830) — during which General Lafayette appeared among the in- 
surgents as commander of the National Guard, and the tricolor was 
raised on the spires of the cathedral of Notre Dame and the Hotel 
de Ville — the mob carried the Tuileries by storm, and Charles X. 
abdicated August 2d, and fled to England. Finally (August 9) his 
relative, Louis Philippe \_loo'-e fc-leep'\ Duke of Orleans, was ele- 
vated to the throne as "citizen king," with the title of Louis 
Fhilifpc /., King of the French. In presenting the "citizen king" 
to the people of Paris, Lafayette uttered these words: "Now we 
have the best of republics." In the meantime a French land and 
naval expedition took Algiers by storm (July 5, 1830); the Dey 
fled to Italy; and Algiers became a French province under the 
name of Algeria. 

12. Belgian Revolution (1830).— The union of Holland and Bel- 
gium as one kingdom by the Congress of Vienna in 18 15 proved 
unfortunate. The Paris Revolution of July, 1830, aroused the 
Belgians to resist the arbitrary mle of the King of Holland; and, 
after a spirited struggle, the Dutch garrison was expelled from 
Brussels, all Belgium was in revolt, and the Belgian National Con- 
gress declared the independence of Belgium. A conference of the 
Five Great Powers — England, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia 
— assembled in London, and decided to separate Belgium from 
Holland; and Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg became Leopold I., 
King 0/ the Belgians. As the Dutch still held Antwerp, a French 
army laid siege to the city and compelled the Dutch garrison to 
surrender, December 23, 1832. 

13. Polish Insurrection of 1S30-'31. — For some time Poland had 
borne the tyranny of the Grand Duke Constantine, the viceroy of 
the Czar Nicholas; but the trumiph of the revolutionary movements 
in France and Belgium encouraged the Poles to attempt to throw 
off the iron yoke of Russian despotism. In November, 1830, an 
insurrection broke out at Warsaw, which soon extended throughout 
Poland. The Polish Diet established a provisional government at 
Warsaw, and a bloody war of ten months followed. The Poles 
gained a series of victories during the spring of 1831, and drove the 
Russians out of Poland ; but large Russian armies soon reappeared 
in Poland, and the Poles met with a decisive defeat in the battle of 
Ostrolenka (May 26, 1831). General Paskiewitch stormed and 
took Warsaw, in September, 1831, and Poland became a mere 



NINETEENTH CENTURY, 335 

province of the Russian Empire. In one year about 80,000 Poles 
were banished to Siberia. 

14. Revolutions in Germany and Italy (1830- '31).— The Paris 
Revolution of July, 1830, occasioned revolutionary movements in 
Germany and Italy. In 1831 popular insurrections established 
liberal constitutions in Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel. In 
Brunswick the despotic Duke Charles was expelled, and under his 
brother and successor the constitution of the Duchy was improved. 
Austrian troops crushed the insurrections in Bologna, Parma, and 
Modena, and restored the expelled regents to their governments. 
The Austrians also protected the Papal States against their own 
bandit and convict soldiers employed in .keeping down the revolu- 
tionists; while the French, by a coup de main \Jzoo-de-man^'\, seized 
and held Ancona for several years. 

15. English Reforms (1828-1833). — During the whole reign of 
George IV. (1820-1830), England was agitated by the question of 
Parliamentary Reform. Under the Tory Ministry of the Duke of 
Wellington, the Test Act was repealed in 1828 by Parliament, 
which also passed the Catholic Eniancipatio7i Act in 1829, thus allow- 
ing Roman Catholics to sit in Parliament. Under William IV. 
(1830-1837) — the brother and successor of George IV. — the work 
of Parliamentary Reform went on. The Tory Ministry of the Duke 
of Wellington was succeeded by a Whig Ministry under Earl Grey, 
pledged to Parliamentary Reform. Lord John Russell introduced 
a Reform Bill into Parliament March i, 1831. The defeat of this 
bill in the House of Commons caused a dissolution of Parliament 
and the election of a new one favorable to Reform. The Reform 
Bill was passed by the House of Commons, but rejected by the 
House of Lords ; whereupon great riots ensued at London, Bristol, 
Derby, and Nottingham ; and the people formed unions to refuse 
payment of taxes until their just demands were conceded. The 
Fij'st Reform Bill finally passed both Houses of Parliament, and 
received the royal assent June 7, 1832; thus enfranchising the 
middle classes by abolishing fifty-six "pocket boroughs," and trans- 
ferring Parliamentary representation to new and large centres of 
population. The Reform Parliament met in 1833 and abolished 
slavery in the British West Indies, allowing the masters a compen- 
sation of twenty million pounds sterling for the 800,000 slaves thus 
emancipated ; thus effecting a result for which the great philanthro- 
pists, William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson, had labored for a 



2^6 MODERN HISTORY. 

lifetime. William IV. died in 1837, and was succeeded on the 
British throne by his niece, Alexandri'na Victoria, then only eigh- 
teen years of age; and after that time the crowns of England and 
Hanover, which had been worn by the same individual since 1714, 
remained separated. In 1840 Queen Victoria was married to a 
German prince, Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who died in 1861. 
For several years, the Irish agitator and orator, Daniel O'Connell, 
endeavored to secure a repeal of the Parliamentary Union of Eng- 
land and Ireland. Richard Cobden and other statesmen organized 
the Anti-Corn Law League ; and in 1846, during the Ministry of 
Sir Robert Peel, Parliament repealed the Corn Laws, thus opening 
Great Britain to the importation of foreign grain, free of duty. 
The Chartists, mostly workingmen — whose demands, specified in a 
People's Charter, were universal suifrage, vote by ballot, yearly 
Parliaments, electoral districts, abolition of property qualification 
for members of Parliament, and compensation for members — made 
an imposing demonstration in London in 1848, and presented a 
monster petition to Parliament containing two million signatures; 
but the Chartist movement soon collapsed. 

IC. Spanish Civil War of 1833 -'39.— In 1833 Ferdinand VII. of 
Spain died ; leaving the crown to his infant daughter, Isabella II. ; 
appointing her mother, Maria Christina, regent ; and granting a 
liberal constitution. But his brother, Don Carlos, claimed the 
throne; and the result was a bloody civil war of six years. Finally, 
in 1840, the queen-regent, supported by the constitutional party, 
and aided by England and France, triumphed ; but a succession of 
popular generals — Esparte'ro, Narvaez \_nar-vc{-eth\ and O'Donnell 
— ruled Spain for twenty years, keeping the kingdom in a state of 
revolution and civil war. 

17. Turkey and Eg-ypt. — In 1831 Mehemet Ali, Pacha of Egypt, 
endeavored to make himself entirely independent of the Sultan of 
Turkey, and sent an army under his son, Ibrahim Pacha, to invade 
Syria. In 1832 Acre was taken by the Eygptians, who advanced 
in a rapid course of victories toward Constantinople; but the inter- 
vention of the Czar Nicholas of Russia in the Sultan's behalf saved 
the Ottoman Empire from utter ruin. In 1839 Mehemet Ali again 
sent Ibrahim Pacha with an army into Syria, and the Egyptians 
were again victorious ; but the intervention of England, Austria, 
Prussia, and Russia saved the Turkish Empire from destruction, and 
Mehemet Ali was forced to relinquish his ambitious designs, after 
the capture of Acre by the British navy (1841). 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 337 

18. England's Eastern Empire. — First Anglo-Cliinese War (1840- 

1842). — In the meantime the British had been extending their power 
in India. The Mahrattas were defeated in 1803; the Burmese in 
1826; and finally, in 1839, an Anglo-Indian army marched into 
Afghanistan, but was obliged to make a disastrous retreat, the greater 
part of the army being destroyed by the Afghans; but in 1842 the 
British defeated the Afghans. In 1843 '^^"'^ British subdued and 
annexed Scinde and Gwalior; and in 1849 '^'"'^ Punjaub was also 
annexed to British India, after several bloody wars with the Sikhs, 
who inhabit that region. Besides her empire in India, England has 
been building up another great dominion in the East. In 1788 she 
took formal possession of the great island of Australia by establish- 
ing a penal colony at Botany Bay, in the southeastern part of the 
island. The convicts sent there became good colonists, and the 
population of Australia rapidly increased by emigration from Eng- 
land during the pretent century ; and the large and flourishing 
cities of Sydney and Melbourne have sprung up as by magic. Aus- 
tralia has been divided into six provinces, each with a governor, 
ministry, and parliament of its own; and that vast island seems 
destined to become the seat of a great Anglo-Saxon nation. The 
discovery of gold in Australia in 1851 still further increased its 
population. New Zealand came into England's possession in 1840, 
but the English have found valiant foes in the brave Maori race. 
Borneo and other islands in the East have also been occupied by 
the British. The Feejee Islands were acquired in 1874. Southern 
Africa — which the British wrested from the Dutch during the 
Napoleonic wars — has also become a flourishing British possession. 
In a war with China (1840-1842) — caused by the efforts of the 
Chinese Emperor to put a stop to the opium trade, which injured 
the health and morals of his subjects — the English completely 
humbled the Chinese by the capture of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo, 
and Chm-kiang-foo ; and by the Treaty of Nankin (August 29,. 
1842) China was forced to pay a war-indemnity of twenty-one 
million dollars, to open five of her ports to foreign commerce, and 
to cede the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain. 

19. French Revolution of 1848. — France a Republic. — Under Louis 
Philippe, France prospered wonderfully; and, with the exception 
of the seventeen years' war with the Arab tribes of Algiers, remained 
at peace with all the world. By the surrender of the indefatigable 
Arab chieftain, Abd el Kader, in 1847, the French conquest of 
Algiers was completed. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte — nephew of 



338 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



the great Emperor — made two attempts to overthrow Louis Phil- 
ippe's government, (1836 and 1840); but was seized each time, 
and the second time imprisoned, but escaped in 1846. Under the 
counsels of the two great statesmen and historians — M. Thiers 
\_te-air''\ and his successor, M. Guizot \_ge'-zo'] — Louis Philippe en- 
deavored to strengthen his dynasty at the expense of popular liberty. 
The attempt of the Government to prevent the holding of a Reform 
banquet in Paris, on February 22, 1848, produced a revolution in 
Paris; and after a struggle of three days in the streets of Paris be- 
tween the people and the troops (February 22, 23, and 24, 1848), 
the mob invaded the Tuileries and destroyed the throne and furni- 
ture, and Louis Philippe abdicated February 24, and fled to Eng- 
land. Thereupon the Second French Republic was proclaimed, and 
a provisional government was formed under the poet Lamartine, 
Ledru-Rollin, Arago, and others. The provisional government was 
succeeded by a National Assembly, chosen by universal suffrage to 
frame a constitution for France. The Moderate Republicans de- 
feated an attempt to establish the Red Republic under Ledru-Rollin 
(April 16, 1848); and the National Guard dispersed a Communist, 
or Red Republican mob which attempted to disperse the National 
Assembly (May 15, 1848). When the Assembly discharged the 
100,000 workingmen employed in Paris at the public expense, a 
great Communist rising in June deluged Paris with blood, Mon- 
seigneur Affre, Archbishop of Paris, being killed ; but the rebellion 
was crushed by General Cavaignac \_l:av-an-yak''], after a great bat- 
tle of four days in the streets of Paris (June 23-26, 1848); and order 
was finally restored, Louis Blanc \_loo'-e blotig], Raspail, Blanqui, and 
other Communist leaders being compelled to flee. In November, 
1848, the new constitution was completed, by which the executive 
power was vested in a President to be elected by universal suffrage 
for four years, and the legislative power was vested in a popular 
Assembly consisting of but one branch. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte 
— the nephew of the great Napoleon — was elected President by a 
majority of over three and a half million votes, and was inaugurated 
December 20, 1848. 

20. llevoliitions in the Austrian Empire (1848-'49). — Austro- 
Uimg'ariau War. — Prince Metternich — who became Prime Minister 
in 1815 under Francis L, and who remained in office as the real 
ruler of the Austrian Empire during the reign of Francis's successor, 
Ferdinand (i 835-1 848) — devoted himself with zeal to the mainte- 
nance of despotism. The Pans Revolution of February, 1848, 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



339 



aroused the various races in the ill-compacted Austrian Empire — 
Germans, Italians, Slavonians, and Hungarians. A violent insur- 
rection in Vienna (March 13, 1848) compelled the flight of Prince 
Metternich and the Emperor Ferdinand, and the establishment of a 
liberal constitution; and Vienna was for several months ruled by 
democratic clubs, while Hungary secured a separate Ministry and 
other privileges. The Slavonic races of the Austrian Empire held 
a Congress at Prague in May, 1848; and a Slavonic insurrection in 
Prague, in June, 1848, was crushed by Austrian troops under Prince 
Windischgratz ; whereupon the Southern Slavonians under Jellachich 
of Croatia rose in favor of the Emperor, and invaded Hungary, but 
were defeated by the Hungarians and driven toward Vienna. An 
insurrection occurred at Buda-Pesth (October 3, 1848), and the 
Austrian commissioner, Lamberg, was killed by the enraged mob. 
The Emperor's attempt to disperse the Hungarian Diet and place 
Hungary under martial law produced a second revolt in Vienna 
(October 6, 1848); Count Latour, Minister of War, was kiHed by 
the mob, and the Emperor again fled; but after a siege and bom- 
bardment of three weeks by Windischgratz and Jellachich, Vienna 
was reduced to submission (October 30, 1848). On December 2, 
1848, the Emperor Ferdinand abdicated, and was succeeded by his 
nephew, Francis Joseph, who granted a constitution to the Austrian 
Empire (March 4, 1849), Austria thus becoming a constitutional 
monarchy. The new Emperor sought to deprive Hungary of its 
free constitution, and Windischgratz and Jellachich entered Buda- 
Pesth (January 5, 1849); but the Hungarian Diet declared Hungary 
an independent republic (April 14, 1849), ^^i^ ^ provisional govern- 
ment was formed with Louis Kossuth at its head. The Hungarians 
under Gorgey and the Polish leaders, Bern and Dembinski, defeated 
the Austrians in a number of battles, recaptured Buda-Pesth, and 
drove Windischgratz and Jellachich out of Hungary in May, 1849; 
but the Czar Nicholas of Russia now came to the aid of Austria, 
and in June, 1849, immense Austrian and Russian armies, under 
Haynau and Paskiewitch, invaded Hungary on all sides. After a 
series of bloody engagements, the Hungarians under Bern experi- 
enced a decisive defeat by the Austrians under Haynau in the great 
battle of Temeswar (August 9, 1849); ^"<^ ^'""^ Hungarian General 
Gorgey, whom Kossuth had just made Dictator, treacherously sur- 
rendered his entire army of 35,000 men to the Russians at Villagos 
(August 13, 1849). Thus poor Hungary lay prostrate before 
Austria's despotic power. Kossuth, Bem, and other leaders, fled 



240 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

into Turkey; and the Sultan nobly refused to give them up at the 
demand of Austria and Russia. 

21. Revolutions in Prussia and the German States (1848 -'51). — 
Schleswig-Holstein War. — t < ir thirty years the German people vainly 
demanded the constitutions promised them by the German princes. 
The Prussian kings, Frederick William III. (i 797-1840) and Fred- 
erick William IV. (1840-1861), and other German princes, refused 
to redeem their promises and endeavored to smother the aspirations 
of the German people for a united Germany. The Paris Revolution 
of February, 1848, produced a violent shock in Germany, and in 
many of the German States princes were compelled to grant long- 
denied privileges and liberties to their subjects. After a violent 
insurrection and street-fight in Berlin (March 18, 1848), King 
Frederick William IV. of Prussia conceded the demands of his sub- 
jects, and placed himself at the head of the liberal movement in 
Germany. A German Parliament assembled at Frankfort-on-the- 
Main' (March 31, 1848), and summoned a German Natio7ial As- 
se?nbfy, which convened at Frankfort-on-the-Main (May 18, 1848). 
The German National Assembly elected the Archduke John of 
Austria regent of Germany, and prepared to frame an imperial con- 
stitution for a united Germany ; and the German Federal Diet 
dissolved itself (July 12, 1848). The Prussian National Assembly, 
which had convened at Berlin May 22, 1848, was dissolved by King 
Frederick William IV., December 5, 1848; and Republican out- 
breaks in Germany were crushed by Prussian troops. Meanwhile a 
reaction throughout Germany restored the absolute power of the 
German princes ; and the King of Prussia rejected the title and 
dignity of Emperor of Germany, which the German National As- 
sembly had offered him (March 28, 1849); ^.fter which Austria, 
Prussia, and other German states, withdrew their representatives 
from the Assembly, which, after adjourning to Stuttgart, in 
Wurtemberg, and calling the people to arms, was dispersed by the 
Wurtemberg Government. The King of Prussia granted a consti- 
tution to his subjects, February 6, 1850; Prussia thus becoming a 
constitutional monarchy, with a Diet in which Government and 
people are represented. A bitter contest of several years between 
Austria and Prussia for supremacy in Germany threatened to end 
in war, but peace was preserved by the restoration of the old Ger- 
man Confederation, with its Federal Diet at Frankfort (June 12, 
1851). In March, 1848, the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein revolted 
against King Frederick VII. of Denmark, and were aided by Prus- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 341 

sian and other German troops; but in 1851, after a war of three 
years, the revolted duchies were reduced to submission by the King 
of Denmark, who was upheld by the Great Powers. 

22. Revolutious in Italy (1848-'49). — Austro-Italiaii War.— Naples. 
— Rome, — For thirty years a party had existed in Italy called at 
first Carbonari, and afterwards Young Italy ; which party, under 
Joseph Mazzini, sought to secure for Italy liberty, unity, independ- 
ence, and a constitutional government. Italy was also violently 
shaken by the revolutionary earthquake of 1848. The revolutions 
in Paris and Vienna aroused the people of Lombardy to resistance 
against Austrian despotism, and the Austrian troops were driven 
from Milan by the populace. King Charles Albert of Sardinia and 
the other Italian princes espoused the cause of the revolted Lom- 
bards, and a fierce war followed between Austria and the Italians ; 
but after two bloody campaigns — during which the aged Austrian 
Field-Marshal Radetzky defeated the Sardinian king in the decisive 
battles of Custozza (July 25, 1848) and Novara (March 23, 1849) 
— Sardinia lay prostrate at the feet of Austria, and despotism tri- 
umphed in Lombardy, Charles Albert abdicating the Sardinian 
throne in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II., who made peace 
with Austria. Venice, which had revolted against Austria in March, 
1848, and proclaimed the Republic of St. Mark, was reduced by 
Field-Marshal Radetzky in August, 1849, ^^^i" ^ siege and bom- 
bardment of a year and a half. King Ferdinand II. of Naples 
suppressed the constitution he had granted, and reduced the revolted 
island of Sicily to submission, after a bloody war (April, 1849). -^^ 
November, 1848, a revolution in Rome compelled the flight of 
Pope Pius IX., whose Prime Minister, Count Rossi, was assassinated ; 
and a new Roman Republic was proclaimed under Joseph Mazzini 
anH Joseph Garibaldi; but in July, 1849, the Roman Republic was 
overthrown and the Pope's temporal power restored by a French 
army, which took Rome, after a vigorous siege and bombardment 
(July 3, 1849). 

SECTION IV.— THE ANTI-SLAVERY STRUGGLE AND CIVIL WAR 
IN THE UNITED STATES. 

1. Taylor'.s and Fillmore's Administrations (1849-1853). — Slavery 
agitation. — Compromise Act, — President Taylor was inaugurated 
March 5, 1849. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 caused 
a stream of immigrants to flock into the new Territory, and early 
in 1849 t^^^y applied tp Congress for the admission of California as 



342 



MODERN HI ST OR V. 



a State. The canstitution for the proposed State forbade slavery 
within her limits, and the people of the Slave States violently- 
opposed her admission as a Free State. Finally Henry Clay origin- 
ated the Compromise Act in the United State Senate, providing for 
the admission of California as a Free State, but requiring slaves 
escaping from the Slave States into the Free States to be returned 
to their owners, and making other concessions to the slave power ; 
which measure was warmly seconded by Daniel Webster and other 
Senators. President Taylor died July 9, 1850, and was succeeded 
as President by Vice President Fillmore, who approved the Com- 
promise Act, after it had passed both Houses of Congress; and that 
famous act became a law. In 1852 Franklin Pierce, of New Hamp- 
shire, the Democratic candidate, was elected President, with William 
Rufus King, of Alabama, as Vice-President ; General Winfield Scott; 
of New York, being the Whig candidate. 

2. Piercers Administration (1853-1857). — Kansas-Nebraska Act. — 
Civil War in Kansas. — President Pierce was inaugurated March 4, 
1853. Early in 1854 the slavery agitation was renewed by the in- 
troduction of a bill in the United States Senate providing for the 
creation of two large Territories, to be named respectively Kansas 
and Nebraska, and allowing the people of the proposed Territories 
to decide for themselves whether or not they would have slavery 
witliin their borders. The measure was carried through, and the 
Missouri Compromise was virtually repealed, thus causing intense 
excitement and exasperation in the Free States. People flocked 
into Kansas from both sections of the Union, and that Territory 
was a theatre of civil war for several years. The aggressive conduct 
of the slave power led to the formation of a new and powerful 
organization in the Free States, known as the Republican party, 
which was opposed to the extension of slavery into the Territories 
of the United States; but in the election of 1856 the Democratic 
candidate, James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was elected President, 
with John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, as Vice-President; John 
C. Fremont, of California, being the Republican candidate, and 
ex- President Fillmore, the candidate of the American party, whose 
leading principle was "Americans shall govern America." 

3. Buchanan's Administration (1857-1861). — Dred Scott Dwision. 
— Jolin Brown. — Secession. — President Buchanan was inaugurated 
March 4, 1857. Two days later (March 6, 1857), the United States 
Supreme Court, in the case of Dred Scott, a negro from Missouri, 
decided that no negro slave, nor the descendant of a slave, could 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



343 



ever become a citizen of the United States. T^t Dred Scott De- 
cision, as it was called, caused intense excitement and indignation 
in the Free States ; and many Northern State Legislatures passed 
Personal Liberty Laws to protect free negroes from being kid- 
napped by Southern slave-holders under the operation of the offens- 
ive Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. The struggle in Kansas still con- 
tinued, and the people of Kansas had twice voted in favor of a 
Free State constitution ; and finally Kansas was admitted into the 
Union as a Free State (January 29, 1861). Minnesota had become 
a State in 1858, and Oregon in 1859. In the autumn of 1859 in- 
tense excitement and exasperation was caused in the Slave States by 
the action of John Brown, an enthusiastic anti-slavery man from 
Kansas, who seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, 
and attempted to free the slaves of Virginia. Brown was captured, 
and hung by the Virginia authorities (December 2, 1859). In the 
fall of i860 Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, the Republican or anti- 
slavery candidate, was elected President, with Hannibal Hamlin, 
of Maine, as Vice-President ; Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, being 
the Northern Democratic candidate; John C. Breckinridge, of 
Kentucky, the Southern Democratic candidate ; and John Bell, of 
Tennessee, the Constitutional Union candidate. In consequence 
of Mr. Lincoln's election. South Carolina seceded from the Union, 
December 20, i860; and early in 1861 six other Slave States — 
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Lousiana, and Texas — 
likewise seceded. A Southern Confederacy was formed at Mont- 
gomery, in Alabama, by delegates from the seceded States, with 
the title of the Confederate States of America (February 4, 1861); 
and five days later the Montgomery Congress elected Jefferson 
Davis, of Mississippi, President of the Confederacy, with Alexan- 
der H. Stephens, of Georgia, as Vice-President. The Confederates 
seized forts, arsenals, mints, ships, custom-houses, and other Gov- 
erment property m the seceded States, and raised armies to uphold 
their position. The South Carolinians had fired upon the Govern- 
ment steamer Star of the West (January 9, 1861), while that steamer 
was conveying reinforcements and provisions to the garrison of 
Fort Sumter. 

4. Lincoln's Administration and the Ciyil War (1861-1865). — Fort 
Sumter, Bull Run, and other events. — President Lincoln was inau- 
gurated March 4, 1861. On April 12, 1861, the Confederates at 
Charleston, South Carolina, under Pierre G. T. Beauregard \bd-re- 
gard'], opened a fierce bombardment on Fort Sumter, which was 



344 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

consequently evacuated two days later by its garrison under Major 
Robert Anderson, who sailed for New York. The President called 
for 75,000 militia to suppress the rising rebellion. On April 19 
(1861), Massachusetts troops were attacked by a mob in Baltimore. 
The President called for 64,000 more men ; and, at his call, Con- 
gress met July 4, 1861, and provided for calling out 500,000 men 
for the army and appropriated $500,000,000 to prosecute the war. 
In the meantime, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas 
seceded, and joined the Confederacy; and Richmond, in Virginia, 
became the Confederate capital, July 20, 1861. Thus began the 
greatest civil war on record. General Benjamin F. Kelly defeated 
the Confederates at Philippi, in West Virginia (June 3, 1861). 
National troops were beaten at Big Bethel, in South-eastern Virginia 
(June 10, t86i); but General Lewis Wallace defeated the Confed- 
erates at Romney, in West Virginia (June 11, 1861) ; and General 
William S. Rosecrans defeated a Confederate force at Rich Moun- 
tain, in West Virginia (July 11, 1S61). About the middle of July 
(1861) the National army under General Irwin McDowell moved 
against the Confederates under Beauregard, who were advancing in 
Northern Virginia toward Washington ; and the National army Avas 
disastrously defeated at Bull Run (July 21, 1861), and fled with the 
utmost haste to Washington, thus arousing the most intense alarm 
in the loyal States. The war was also raging in Missouri. General 
Franz Sigel defeated the Confederates at Carthage (July 5, 1861) ; 
General Nathaniel Lyon defeated a Confederate force at Dug Spring, 
in South-western Missouri (August 2, 1861); but was himself de- 
feated and killed at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, Missouri 
(August ID, 1 861). A National land and naval expedition, under 
General Benjamin F. Butler and Commodore Stringham, captured 
Hatteras Inlet, on the North Carolina coast (August 29, 1S61); and 
General Rosecrans defeated the Confederates at Carnifax Ferry 
(Gauley river), in West Virginia (September 12, 1861) ; but Lex- 
ington, Missouri, was taken by the Confederates, after a brave de- 
fence by Colonel Mulligan (September 20, 1861); and General 
Stone's troops were beaten at Ball's Bluff, on the Potomac, by the 
Confederates under General Evans (October 21, 1861). General 
Ulysses Simpson Grant was defeated by the Confederates at Bel- 
mont, in South-eastern Missouri (November 7, 1861); but on the 
same day the National navy under Commodore Dupont captured 
Port Royal Entrance, on the South Carolina coast. England de- 
clared her neutrality when the war began, but both England and 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR K 345: 

France recognized the Confederates as belligerents. The United 
States war vessel San Jacinto, under Captain Wilkes, took two Con- 
federate commissioners from the British mail steamer Trent, Novem- 
ber 7, 1861. This exasperated Great Britain, but the dispute was 
settled when the United States Government disavowed the act of 
Captain Wilkes and allowed the Confederate commissioners, Mason 
and Slidell, to go to England and France. 

5. (1862). — Fort Douelson. — Shiloh. — New Orleans. — Seveu Days' 
Battles. — Second Bull Run. — Autietani. — Fredericksburg'. — The year 
1862 opened with a series of brilliant victories for the National 
cause. General George H. Thomas defeated the Confederates at 
Mill Spring, Kentucky (January 19, 1862). Roanoke Island, on 
the North Carolina coast, was captured by General Ambrose E. 
Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough (February 8, 1862). Fort 
Donelson, on the Cumberland river, in Tennessee, with its Confed- 
erate garrison of 13,000 men, surrendered to General Grant, after a 
siege and bombardment (February 16, 1862). General Curtis de- 
feated the Confederates at Pea Ridge, in North-western Arkansas, 
after a battle of three days (March 8, 1862). The Confederate ram 
Merrimac , which had sunk the frigates Cumberland and Congress, 
near Norfolk, Virginia (March 8, 1862), was defeated and disabled 
by the iron-clad Monitor, Lieutenant John H. Worden, the next 
day (March 9, 1862). General Burnside captured Newbern, in 
North Carolina (March 14, 1862; and General Shields defeated 
"Stonewall" Jackson at Winchester, Virginia (March 23, 1862). 
Generals Grant and Buell defeated the Confederates under Generals 
Beauregard and Albert Sidney Johnston (the latter of whom was 
killed) at Shiloh, Tennessee (April 7, 1862), after a bloody battle 
of two days. Island No. 10, in the Mississippi river, surrendered 
to Commodore Andrew H. Foote, with its Confederate garrison, on 
the same day, after a siege and bombardment of three weeks. 
Captain Gillmore captured Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the 
Savannah river, in Georgia (April 11, 1862). General Butler took 
possession of New Orleans, after it had been evacuated by the Con- 
federates (April 28, 1862), and after Commodores David G. Farra- 
gut and David D. Porter, with National gunboats, ran by Forts 
Jackson and St. Philip. Natchez was taken by Farragut (May 12), 
and Memphis by Commodore Davis (June 6). General Halleck 
compelled the Confederates to evacuate Corinth, in North-eastern 
Mississippi (May 29, 1862). General Rosecrans defeated the Con- 
federates at luka, near Corinth (September 19, 1862), and at Cor- 



246 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

inth (October 3-5, 1862). Two Confederate armies, under Generals 
Braxton Bragg and E. Kirby Smith, invaded Kentucky; and Smith 
defeated General Nelson at Richmond, Kentucky (August 29-30, 
1862); but Bragg was defeated by General McCook at Perryville 
(October 8, 1862), and driven from the State. The National forces 
were not so fortunate in Virginia durmg 1862. General George B. 
McClellan, with the Army of the Potomac, 100,000 strong, moved 
toward Richmond from Fortress Monroe (April 4, 1862), compelled 
the Confederates to evacuate Yorktown (May 3, 1862), defeated 
them at Williamsburg (May 5, 1862), compelled the evacuation of 
Norfolk (May 10, 1862), fought an indecisive battle of two days at 
Fair Oaks (May 31 and June i, 1862)5 but finally was compelled 
to abandon the siege of Richmond after the great Seven Days' 
Battles (June 25-July i, 1862). After the indecisive battle of 
Cedar Mountain (August 9, 1862), the Army of Virginia, under 
General John Pope, was defeated by the Confederates under General 
Robert E. Lee and " Stonewall" Jackson, in a series of battles at 
and near the old Bull Run battle-ground, during the last week of 
August (1862), and driven to the fortifications around Washington. 
Lee with 100,000 men crossed the Potomac into Maryland, followed 
by McClellan, who gained a victory at South Mountain (September 
14, 1862) ; but Harper's Ferry, with its garrison of 12,000 National 
troops, surrendered to the Confederates (September 15, 1862). 
McClellan defeated Lee in a great battle at Antietam Creek (Sep 
tember 17, 1862); whereupon the Confederates fled into Virginia, 
pursued by McClellan, who was superseded in command of the 
Army of the Potomac by General Burnside, who was repulsed in an 
attack upon Lee's army at Fredericksburg (December 13, 1862). 
The year 1862 ended in gloom for the Union cause, and the re- 
bellion was in its strength. On September 22, 1862, President 
Linco)n warned the Confederates that he would proclaim their 
slaves free, if they did not lay down their arms within a hundred 
days. The Sioux \soo\ Indians in Minnesota perpetrated atrocious 
massacres during the summer of 1862, and drove 25,000 whites 
from their homes, but were at last defeated and driven into Dakota. 
6. (18G3). — Murfreesboro'.—Oliancellorsyille.— Gettysburg.— Vicks- 
burg. — Charleston. — Cluckaiiiauga.— Chattaiioog-a. — On January i , 
1863, President Lincoln issued his ever-memorable Emancipation 
Proclamation, declaring the slaves in the revolted States forever 
free. On January 2, 1863, General Rosecrans defeated the Con- 
federates under General Bragg at Murfreesboro', in Tennessee, after 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



347 



a bloody battle of three days. Late in April, 1863, General Joseph 
Hooker succeeded General Burnside in the command of the Army 
of the Potomac; and on May 2 and 3 (1S63) Hooker was defeated 
by the Confederates under General Lee in the battle of Chancel- 
lorsville, in which the famous Confederate general, "Stonewall" 
Jackson, was killed. Lee with 100,000 men then invaded Mary- 
land affd Pennsylvania, followed by Hooker, who was succeeded in 
command of the Army of the Potomac by General George Gordon 
Meade, who defeated Lee's army at Gettysburg, in Pennsylvania, 
on July 3, 1863, after a great battle of three days; after which the 
Confederates fled into Virginia, followed by Meade's army. After 
a series of brilliant victories over the Confederates in Mississippi, 
in May, 1863, General Grant laid siege to Vicksburg, which was 
surrendered on the 4th of July (1863), with its garrison of 30,000 
Confederate troops under General John C. Pemberton. Port Hud- 
son, in Louisiana, with its Confederate garrison, surrendered to 
General Nathaniel P. Banks a few days later (July 8, 1S63); thus 
opening the Mississippi from its source to its mouth, and severing 
the Confederacy into two parts. During the summer of 1863 the 
National army under General Q. A. Gillmore, and the fleet under 
Admiral Dahlgren, laid siege to Charleston, in South Carolina; 
and the city and Fort Sumter were severely bombarded for many 
months. On September 20 (1863) the great Army of the Cumber- 
land under General Rosecrans, about 50,000 strong, was defeated 
by the Confederates under Bragg at Chickamauga Creek, near 
Chattanooga, in Tennessee, after a severe battle of two days ; but 
Rosecrans was superseded in his command by Grant, who defeated 
Bragg in the great three days' battle of Chattanooga (November 23, 
24, and 25, 1863), the Confederates being driven from their strong 
positions on Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge. In November, 
1863, General Burnside was besieged by the Confederates under 
General James Longstreet at Knoxville, in Tennessee; but when 
General William T. Sherman went to Burnside's relief, Longstreet 
fled into Virginia and rejoined Lee's army. During 1863 the 
National forces made great progress in Arkansas, capturing Arkansas 
Post, Helena, Fort Smith, and Little Rock. General John Morgan's 
guerrillas having invaded Indiana and Ohio in June and July 
(1863"), were finally captured in Ohio. In July (1863) a great riot 
of three days in New York City, caused by the draft, resulted in 
great destruction of life and property. The year 1863 closed with 
many bright hopes for the National cause, and the rebellion was on 



348 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

its decline. West Virginia was admitted into the Union as a 
separate State, June i, 1863. 

7. (1864). — Grant's Yirgiuia cainpai^u. — Sheniiaii's Atlanta cam- 
paign. — Sheridan's victories. — Nashville. — The National cause met 
with several misfortunes in the early part of 1864. General Sey- 
mour was defeated at Olustee, in Florida (February 20); Generals 
Banks and A. J. Smith and Admiral Porter led an unsuccessful 
expedition up the Red River, in Louisiana (March and April) ; and 
the garrison of Fort Pillow, in Western Tennessee, were captured 
and massacred by General Forrest's Confederate force (April 12). 
In February, 1864, General Ulysses Simpson Grant became com- 
mander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, with the title 
of Lieutenant-General; and established his head-quarters with the 
Army of the Potomac under General Meade, early in May, and 
ordered the Army of the Potomac in Virginia and General William 
Tecumseh Sherman's army in Northern Georgia, each nearly 100,000 
strong, to move against the Confederates. After a week of battles 
with the Confederate army under General Lee, in the "Wilderness" 
and at Spottsylvania Court-House (May 5-12, 1864), Grant led the 
Army of the Potomac against Richmond and Petersburg, to which 
cities he laid siege early in June (1864), in conjunction with the 
Army of the James under General Butler, Lee taking a position to 
defend both cities. During the summer and autumn of 1864, and 
the ensuing winter. Grant continued the siege of Richmond and 
Petersburg with vigor, and made many fierce assaults upon the 
Confederate works. After defeating the Confederate army under 
General Joseph E. Johnston in a number of battles in Northern 
Georgia, in May and June, 1864, General Sherman laid siege to 
Atlanta, before which he defeated General John B. Hood, Johns- 
ton's successor, in three great battles in July (1864) ; and finally, on 
September 2 (1864), the Confederates were compelled to evacuate 
Atlanta, of which Sherman then took possession. On June 19, 
1864, after a hot engagement in the English Channel, the National 
war-vessel Kearsarge, Captain John A. Winslow, sunk the Alabama, 
a Confederate war-vessel built in England by sympathizers with the 
Confederates, and commanded by Captain Raphael Semmes [^se/fiz]. 
In July, 1864, the Confederates under General Jubal Early invaded 
Maryland ; but, after gaining a victory over General Lewis Wallace 
at the Monocacy creek (July 9, 1864), were driven back into 
Virginia, and defeated near Winchester (July 20, 1864); but Cham- 
bersburg, in Pennsylvania, was burned by a small Confederate force 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



349 



(July 30, 1864). In August (1864) Admiral Farragut defeated a 
Confederate fleet in Mobile bay, in Alabama \ and Forts Gaines 
and Morgan were assailed and taken by Farragut's fleet, aided by 
a National land force under General Gordon Granger. In the 
Shenandoah Valley, in Virginia, a National force under General 
Philip H. Sheridan defeated General Jubal Early's Confederate 
army at Winchester (September 19, 1864), at Fisher's Hill (Sep- 
tember 22, 1S64), and at Cedar Creek (October 19, 1864). In 
November, 1864, General Sherman burned Atlanta and began his 
famous "march through Georgia;" and on .December 21 (1864) 
he entered Savannah, which the Confederates had evacuated on his 
approach. In the meantime Hood's Confederate army had invaded 
Tennessee, watched by General George H. Thomas, whom Sherman 
had left back for that purpose ; and after an indecisive battle at 
Franklin (November 29, 1864), Hood besieged Thomas in Nash- 
ville, but Hood's army was totally annihilated (December 15, 1864). 
Nevada was admitted into the Union as a State, October 31, 
1864; and President Lincoln was reelected November 8 (1S64), with 
Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, as Vice-President ; General George 
B. McClellan, of New Jersey, being the Democratic nominee. 

8. (1865). — Fort Fisher. — Slierman's Caroliua caiiipaign. — Fall of 
Richmond. — Lee's siuTender. — Lincoln's assassination, — On January 
15, 1865, Fort Fisher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, in 
North Carolina, was taken by storm by a National force under 
General Alfred H. Terry, who also took possession of Wilmington, 
February 22 (1865), after its evacuation by the Confederates. In 
February, 1865, Sherman left Savannah, and marched through 
South Carolina, taking Columbia, its capital (February 17); where- 
upon the Confederates evacuated Charleston (February 18); and 
Sherman continued his march into North Carolina, in which State 
he defeated the Confederates under Johnston at Averysboro' and 
Bentonville (March 16 and 19, 1865). After annihilating Early's 
Confederate army at Charlottesville, Virginia (March 2, 1865), 
General Sheridan joined Grant's army before Richmond. In a ter- 
rible three days' battle before Petersburg (March 30-April i, 1865), 
Grant's army was victorious at Five Forks; and Lee's forces were 
compelled to evacuate both Petersburg and Richmond, which were 
then occupied by National troops (April 2, 1865). Lee fled west- 
ward toward Lynchburg, pursued by Grant; and finally (April 9, 
1865) Lee surrendered what remained of his army — 26,000 men — 
to Grant, at Appomattox Court-House, thus giving the death-blow 



350 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



to the rebellion. The flight of the Confederate " President," "Cab- 
inet" and "Congress" from Richmond had ended the Confederate 
Government. While the loyal people were rejoicing because of the 
suppression of the rebellion and the return of peace, President Lin- 
coln was shot, in a theatre in Washington, by John Wilkes Booth, 
on the night of April 14, 1S65, and died the next morning; and 
the American people suddenly became a nation of mourners. The 
assassin had fled, but was afterwards captured and shot in Virginia; 
and his accomplices in the crime were tried, convicted, and pun- 
ished, some by imprisonment, and others by hanging. 

0. Johnson's Admiuistration (1865-1869). — End of the Rebellion. — 
Johnson's inipeaehnieut. — On the day of Mr. Lincoln's death (April 

15, 1865), Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, was inaugurated 
President of the United States. The Confederate army under 
General Joseph E. Johnston, m North Carolina, surrendered to 
General Sherman (April 26. 1S65); and Jefferson Davis, the fugi- 
tive "President" of the Confederacy, was captured near Irwinsville, 
Georgia (May 10, 1865); and by the middle of May, 1865, armed 
rebellion had ceased. Li December, 1S65, slavery was forever 
abolished in the United States, by the adoption of the Thirteenth 
Constitutional Amendment — a result for which William Lloyd 
Garrison, Wendell Phillip's, and Gerrit Smith had labored nearly 
a generation. A Fourteenth Amendment secured the results of the 
war. President Johnson was continually at variance with Congress 
respecting the reorganization of the Union ; and in the spring of 
1868 he was impeached by the House of Representatives for high 
crimes and misdemeanors; but the Senate, sitting as a High Court 
of Impeachment, acquitted him of all the charges against him (May 

16, 1868). The other principal events of Johnson's Administration 
were the successful laying of the great Atlantic Telegraph Cable — 
the project of Cyrus W. Field, of New York — in the summer of 
1866 ; the admission of Nebraska as a State, in March, 1867 ; and 
the purchase of the territory of Alaska (formerly Russian America) 
from Russia by the United States for seven million two hundred 
thousand dollars, in March, 1867. Li the fall of 1868 General 
Ulysses S. Grant, of Illinois, the Republican candidate, was elected 
President, with Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, as Vice-President; 
Horatio Seymour, of New York, being the Democratic nominee. 

10. (jirant's Administration! 1860-1877). — Alabama claims. — Ameri- 
can Cent<^nnial. — Dispnted election. — President Grant was inaugurated 
March 4, 1869. A railroad to the Pacific was completed in May, 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



351 



1869; and in March, 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment of the 
National Constitution was adopted, enfranchising the colored race 
in the United States. A serious dispute with England concerning 
the Alabama, and other Confederate cruisers built in England 
during the civil war, was satisfactorily settled by the Treaty of 
Washington, framed by th.e Joint High Commission, which provided 
for the settlement of all claims growing out of the dispute by a 
Board of Arbitrators, appointed by the Governments of the United 
States, Great Britain, Brazil, Italy, and Switzerland. The five Arbi- 
trators met at Geneva, in Switzerland, in 1872, and decided that 
Great Britain should pay to the United States fifteen and one half 
million dollars; and all trouble passed away. General Grant was 
reelected President in 1872, with Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, 
as Vice-President; Horace Greeley, editor and founder of the New 
York Tribune, being the Liberal Republican and Democratic candi- 
date. In the spring of 1873 ^"^^ Modoc Indians, in Oregon, mur- 
dered General Canby at a peace conference ; but after a short war 
the Modocs were subdued, and Captain Jack and other Modoc 
chiefs were captured (June i, 1873), ^"^ ^^^^ hung October 3, 
1873, fo'f the murder of General Canby. In September, 1873, ^ 
dreadful financial crisis swept over the country, many of the leading 
banks in the large cities failing ; and for the next six years the 
country was suffering from a general business prostration. In the 
fall of 1873 ^^^ Spanish authorities in Cuba seized the American 
steamer Virginias, and shot a large part of the crew as filibusters 
who intended to aid the Cuban revolutionists; but the threatened 
war was averted by Spain making reparation to the United States 
for the outrage. In 1873, '74' ^^^ '75 there were domestic troubles 
in Louisiana, growing out of disputed State elections and rival State 
Governments, which were ended by the interference of the National 
Government; and in the spring of 1874 there was a short civil war 
in Arkansas from the same cause, which was also terminated by the 
interference of the National Government. In 1875 centennial an- 
niversaries of Revolutionary events were celebrated with appropriate 
and impressive ceremonies at the places where those events occurred. 
The one-hundredth year of American Independence was signalized 
by the great Centennial Exhibition, in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, 
(May 10 — November 10, 1876), being a grand display by all nations 
of their "arts, manufactures, and products of the soil and the 
mine." The one-hundredth anniversary of American Independence 
— July 4th, i'876 — was celebrated in Philadelphia with the grandest 



352 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



pageant ever known in the United States; and the day was appro- 
priately celebrated in every part of the country. Colorado, the 
"Centennial State," was admitted in July, 1876. During the 
spring and summer of 1876 the Emperor Dom Pedro II. of Brazil 
visited the United States. In an expedition against the Sioux 
Indians, in Montana Territory, General Custer and his entire com- 
mand of 307 men were massacred by the Indians (June 25, 1876); 
but the Sioux were subdued after a bloody war. The Presidential 
election of 1876 was disputed; the Republicans claiming that their 
candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, was elected ; while the 
Democrats claimed that their nominee, Samuel J. Tilden, of New 
York, was chosen. A threatened civil war was prevented through 
the action of Congress in creating an Electoral Commission, which 
decided in favor of Rutherford B. Hayes for President, and William 
A. Wheeler, of New York, for Vice-President. 

11. Hayes's Administration (1S77-1S81). — Labor riots and Indian 
wars. — President Hayes was inaugurated March 5, 1877. ^^i July, 
1877, there were destructive labor riots at Pittsburg, Baltimore, and 
other large cities. A war with the Nez Perce Indians, in Idaho 
Territory, in the summer of 1877, was ended by the defeat and 
capture of Chief Joseph. In the summer of 1878 the Bannack 
Indians, in Oregon, were also subdued. In the fall of 1879 the 
Ute Indians, in Colorado, massacred Major Thornburgh's command 
and killed Agent Meeker, but were soon brought to terms. In 1880 
James A. Garfield, of Ohio, the Republican candidate, was elected 
President of the United States, with Chester A. Arthur, of New 
York, as Vice-President; General Winfield Scott Hancock, of 
Pennsylvania, being the Democratic candidate. 

12. Gai-field's Administration and jissassination (1881). — Arthur's 
Administration. — President Garfield was inaugurated March 4, 1881; 
and on July 2, 1881, he was shot by Charles J. Guiteau [ge'-lo] adis- 
appointed office-seeker from Chicago; and — after suffering eleven 
weeks, with the most heroic fortitude — he finally died September 
19, 1 881, at Long Branch, the famous sea-side resort on the New 
Jersey coast, whither he had been taken from Washington two weeks 
before. His death caused the most intense grief among the whole 
American people, and in England he was mourned as if he had been 
an English prince, while the whole civilized world expressed its 
sorrow. The funeral obsequies at Washington, September 23, and 
at Cleveland, Ohio, where his remains were interred, September 26, 
were most imposing and impressive; and the funeral day was duly 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 353 

observed throughout the United States. Vice-President Chester A. 
Arthur was inaugurated President September 20, 1881. The centen- 
nial anniversary of the surrender of Lord Cornwallis was celebrated 
with imposing ceremonies at Yorktown, Virginia, October 19, 1881. 
Guiteau the assassin was tried and convicted, and hanged June 30, 
1882. 

13. Progress of the United States. — During the first century of the 
existence of the great Republic of the United States of America, 
the Nation has made unparalleled progress in population, science, 
art, invention, education, manufactures, and commerce. The Union 
has increased from thirteen to thirty-eight States, and the population 
has increased from three million to fifty million durmg the same 
period. From a narrow strip of territory between the Alleghany 
mountains and the Atlantic coast, wherein white settlements existed 
before and during the period of the American Revolution, the tide 
of emigration has rolled westward, across half the continent, and 
to the Pacific coast. In the vast regions of the prairied West, 
which a century ago were one vast wilderness, inhabited by the red 
children of the forest, have arisen flourishing States, with millions 
of white inhabitants ; and thousands of flourishing cities, towns, 
villages, and beautiful farms dot the country in which a century ago 
the red man hunted and fished. Our free institutions and abundant 
resources have been yearly bringing hundreds of thousands of 
Europeans to our shores. Internal communication is carried on by 
railways which traverse every portion of the country, and by steam- 
boats which ply our navigable rivers and lakes, while steamships 
sail to and from our ports. The telegraph and press are constant 
vehicles of intelligence, and ocean cables transmit intelligence to 
and from Europe. 

SECTION v.— TIMES OF NAPOLEON III. AND PRINCE BISMARCK. 
1. Louis Napoleon's Coup d' Etat. — Napoleon III., Emperor of the 
French. — No sooner had Louis Napoleon Bonaparte become Presi- 
dent of the French Republic in December, 1848, than he entertained 
the design of restoring the French Empire. A violent quarrel be- 
tween the President and the National Assembly was ended by a 
stroke of violence on the part of Louis Napoleon. On the night of 
December i, 1851, the leading generals and statesmen of France 
were seized in their beds and imprisoned, and troops were massed 
between the Elysee and the Tuileries. In the morning (December 
2, 185 1) the Parisians found the walls covered with announcements: . 
23 



354 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



"The National Assembly is dissolved ; universal suffrage is reestab- 
lished ; the electoral colleges are summoned to meet December 21 ; 
Paris is in a state of siege." The members of the Assembly met 
and impeached the President, but were quickly seized and impris- 
oned. All resistance was speedily quelled by the troops, and the 
Coup (f Etat \koo-da-iaH'\ was completely successful. Two days 
later (December 4, 1851), 48,000 troops were brought to Paris; 
about 5,000 persons were massacred by the troops in the streets and 
prisons ; and 26,000 persons were banished to French Guiana and 
the African coast. Victor Hugo and General Changarnier \_shon- 
gar-/ie-a''\ were afterwards permanently banished. Louis Napoleon 
then caused himself to be elected President for ten years, and 
granted a new constitution, vesting the legislative power in a Senate 
and a Corps Legislatif. After a tour through France — during which 
he was everywhere greeted with shouts of "Vive 1' Empereur ! " — 
he caased the French people to vote for the restoration of the French 
Empire; and on December 2, 1852 — exactly one year after the 
Coup (V Etat — Louis Napoleon became ^^ Napoleon III., by the 
grace of God, and by the will of the people, Enipero7' of the French.'''' 
Early in 1853 he married Eugenie de Montijo, Countess de Teba, 
a Spanish lady not related to any reigning family. For eighteen 
years (1852-1870) Napoleon IIL was the most prominent figure in 
European politics; and he sought to secure his dynasty by gratify- 
ing the desire of the French people for military glory, although he 
had declared in a speech at Bordeaux early in 1853 that "The 
Empire is peace" (^" L' Empire c' est la paix.'') Napoleon IIL 
greatly enlarged and beautified Paris, and France enjoyed material 
prosperity. 

2. Tlie Crimean War (1S53-1856). — Alina, Balaklava, Inkermann, 
.Sevastopol. — Peace of Paris. — The balance of power established by 
the Congress of Vienna in 1815 was disturbed for the first time by 
a war between Russia and Turkey begun in the fall of 1853, through 
the interference of the Czar Nicholas in the internal affairs of the 
Ottoman Empire. When the Sultan of Turkey — through the influ- 
ence of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, the British Ambassador at 
Constantinople — rejected the Czar's claim to exercise a protectorate 
over the Sultan's Christian subjects, the Russian army invaded the 
Turkish principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia [Wol-lok'-e-a'\, 
whereupon the Ottoman Porte declared war. The Russian fleet in 
the Black Sea destroyed a Turkish squadron at Sinope, in Asiatic 
Turkey (November 13); but, on the Danube, Omar Pacha won 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



355 



brilliant victories over the Russian armies ; and after Paskiewitch's 
unsuccessful siege of Silistria, in the spring of 1854, the Russians 
evacuated the Turkish principalities. Napoleon III., to gratify his 
army by a war, supported England in her Eastern policy ; and in 
March, 1854, England and France, in alliance with Turkey, de- 
clared war against Russia; and an expedition of 90,000 English and 
French troops was sent to aid the Turks. This expedition landed 
in the Crimean peninsula, in Southern Russia, in September, 1854; 
defeated Prince Menschikoff in the battle of the Alma (September 
20, 1854); and laid siege to the strong fortress of Sevas'topol (Octo- 
ber 17, 1854). The indecisive battle of Balaklav'a (October 25, 
1854,) was made memorable by the gallant charge and consequent 
destruction of the English Light Cavalry Brigade — '"the Brave Six 
Hundred" — in an assault upon the strong Russian intrenchments. 
In the boody battle of Inkermann (November 5, 1854), 14,000 
English and French troops repulsed the assaults of 50,000 Russians. 
In the spring of 1855 Sardinia joined the allies. The dreadful suf- 
ferings of the British soldiers in the Crimea were alleviated through 
the ministrations of Miss Florence Nightingale, who headed a band 
of volunteer nurses from England. Meanwhile the allied English, 
French, Turkish, and Sardinian armies had vigorously pressed the 
siege of Sevastopol, which, after numerous assaults and bombard- 
ments and bloody engagements, the Russians evacuated September 
9, 1855 ; and the allies were left in possession of the strong fortress, 
after nearly a year's siege. An Anglo-French fleet in the Baltic, 
under Sir Charles Napier, bombarded Sweaborg (August, 1855); 
Kinburn, on the Black Sea, was taken by the allies (October, 1855); 
but Kars, in Asiatic Turkey, was captured by the Russians (Novem- 
ber 28, 1855). By the Peace of Paris (March 30, 1856), the Czar 
Alexander II. — the son and successor of Nicholas, who died March 
2, 1855 — relinquished the ambitious pretensions of the House of 
Romanoff; and Turkey was admitted into the European States- 
System, and its independence was guaranteed by the Powers. A 
few years later Moldavia and Wallachia were erected into the 
almost-independent state of Roumania, with a prince elected by the 
people and confirmed by the Sultan. 

3. Sepoy Mutiny in British India (1857 -'58). — Second Anglo- 
Chinese War. — England conducted successful wars with Persia and 
China in 1857 ; and the sam^ year she became involved in a more 
serious struggle with her Sepoy troops in India, who had risen in 
mutiny against their British officers, because of the introduction of 



,e6 MODERN HISTORY. 

the Enfield rifles, with cartridges greased with animal fat, which the 
Hindoos believed would defile them, as their religion forbade their 
tasting animal flesh or fat. The mutiny began at Meerut in April, 
1857. The mutineers perpetrated fiendish massacres of English 
women and children at Delhi and Cawnpore. General Havelock 
defeated the mutineers under Nena Sahib eight times on the banks 
of the Ganges. Delhi and Cawnpore — the strongholds of the Sepoy- 
mutineers — were finally taken by the British, after vigorous sieges and 
furious assaults. The small British garrison which had been be- 
sieged by the mutineers at Lucknow, was relieved, first by General 
Havelock, and afterward by Sir Colin Campbell. The mutiny was 
finally quelled by Sir Colin Campbell, and British authority was 
fully reestablished in Hindoostan in 1858. In 1858 the government 
of British India was transferred from the East India Company to the 
British crown. In 1858 an-d i860 the English and French humbled 
the Chinese by the capture of Canton and Pekin; and, by the 
Treaty of Tien-tsin (October, i860), China allowed foreign ambas- 
sadors to reside at Pekin. 

4. The Italian War of 1859. — Magenta and Solferino. — Peace of 
Villa Fi-anca. — Count Cavour — the able statesman and Prime Min- 
ister of King Victor Emmanuel II. of Sardinia — devoted himself to 
the cause of Italian nationality and freedom, and his efi"orts were 
seconded by the Emperor Napoleon III. of France. In April, 1859, 
war broke out between Austria and Sardinia, because Sardinia 
rejected Austria's ultimatum to disarm. The Austrians invaded 
Sardinian territory. France formed an alliance with Sardinia, and 
sent troops to expel the Austrians. The Austrians were defeated by 
the French and Italian armies at Montebello (May 20, 1859), at 
Palestro (May 31, 1859), and in the great and decisive battles of 
Magenta (June 4, 1859) and Solferino (June 24, 1859), by which 
the Austrians lost Lombardy. On July 11, 1859, the Emperors of 
France and Austria signed the Peace of Villa Franca, which gave 
Lombardy to Sardinia, and provided for an Italian union. In i860 
Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France, as a reward for France's 
aid to Sardinia. 

6. Rise of the Kingdom of Italy. — In i860 and 1861 a series of 
political changes occurred in Italy. In i860 the enthusiastic Italian 
republican, General Garibaldi, invaded and conquered Sicily and 
Naples, compelling the Bourbon king, Francis II. of Naples, to 
flee; and Naples and Sicily were annexed to the dominions of King 



NIN-E TEE NTH CENTUR V. 35 7 

Victor Emmanuel II. of Sardinia. In 1861 all the states of Italy, ex- 
cept the papal dominions, the small republic of San Marino, and the 
Austrian province of Venetia, were united into one monarchy called 
The Kingdotn of Italy ; the first Italian Parliament, which met at 
Turin in February, 1861, having proclaimed King Victor Emmanuel 
oi 'Sizxd^xmz. King of Italy. In 1862 Garibaldi attempted to seize 
Rome for Italy, but was defeated by the Italian army at Aspromonte 
(August 29, 1862). 

6. The French Invasion of Mexico and the Emperor Maximiliaiu — 

In December, i86i, a combined French, Spanish, and English ex- 
pedition invaded Mexico, to secure payment of the claims of French, 
Spanish, and English subjects. The English and Spaniards with- 
drew from 'Mexican soil in 1862, upon receiving satisfaction from 
the Mexican Government, and upon being apprised of the aim of 
the Emperor Napoleon III. to overthrow the Mexican Republic 
and establish a monarchy on Mexican soil. The French troops 
remained to carry out the French Emperor's ambitious scheme. In 
1863 the French under General Forey took Puebla \_pweb' -lahl by 
siege (May 15, 1863), and occupied the city of Mexico (June 13, 
1863). An Assembly of Notables, under French influence, declared 
Mexico a hereditary empire, and proclaimed the Archduke Maxi- 
milian, brother of the Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria, Emperor 
of Mexico. Maximilian and his wife, Carlotta, entered the Mexican 
capital in June, 1864. The war between the French and the Mex- 
ican Imperialists on one side, and the Mexican Republicans under 
President Benito Juarez \hoo'-ar-et}{\ on the other, continued with 
various success for several years. In December, 1866, Napoleon III. 
withdrew the French expeditionary forces from Mexico, at the urgent 
demand of the United States, and Maximilian's empire rapidly tot- 
tered to its fall. Maximilian refused to abdicate, as advised by the 
French Emperor, and in 1867 Maximilian was hemmed in at Quere- 
taro, where, through the treachery of the Imperialist general, Lopez 
\lo-paitU\ he was captured and finally shot by the Republicans 
(June 19, 1867); and his empress, Carlotta, became hopelessly 
insane. Thus the Mexican Republic triumphed, and the French 
Emperor's design of founding a Latin empire in America failed 
ignominiously. 

7. Greek RcTolntion of 1862. — The tyranny and misrule of King 
Otho of Greece — who had reigned over that country since its liber- 
ation from the Turkish yoke — produced a revolution in 1862, which 



558 



MODERN HISTOR V. 



drove him from the throne; and in the following year (1863), 
Prince George of Denmark became King of Greece with the title 
of George I., King of the Hellenes. In 1863 Great Britain aban- 
doned her fifty years' protectorate of the Ionian Islands, and those 
islands were then annexed to the Kingdom of Greece. 

8. Polish Insurrection of 1863. — In the meantime Russian despot- 
ism produced great discontent in Poland, and the attempt to enroll 
all able-bodied Poles in the Russian army produced a formidable 
insurrection in Poland in 1863, which was suppressed by Russia 
with extreme difficulty. The Poles were severely punished ; the 
Polish language was forbidden in the schools of Poland, and Russian 
substituted instead; and in 1868 Poland ceased to exist and was 
entirely absorbed in the Russian Empire. , 

9. Russian Serf Emancipation (1863). — On February i, 1861, the 
Czar Alexander II. of Russia issued an imperial ukase promising the 
emancipation of the Russian serfs two years from that date ; and ac- 
cordingly the serfs were declared free on February i, 1863. By 
this action of the Czar twenty-three millions of Russians were raised 
from a most degrading condition to the position of free Russian 
subjects, and measures were taken for their improvement. 

10. SchlesTTi^-Holstein War of 1864. — On the death of King 
Frederick VII. of Denmark and the accession of his successor, 
Christian IX., in November, 1863, a dispute arose between Den- 
mark and the German Confederation concerning the succession to. 
the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, which had been ruled by the 
King of Denmark ; the Germans supporting the claims of the Duke 
of Augustenburg. Austrian, Prussian, and German Federal armies 
were sent into Schleswig-Holstein against the Danes; and after two 
spirited campaigns — during which the Prussians captured Duppel 
(April 18, 1864) and Alsen (July 9, 1S64) — the King of Denmark 
was forced to accept peace by relinquishing Schleswig-Holstein to 
Austria and Prussia (October, 1864). 

11. The Seren Weeks' War (1866). — Sadowa. — Peace of Prague. — 

Austria and Prussia soon began to quarrel about Schleswig-Holstein, 
Austria demanding that the duchies should be given to the Duke of 
Augustenburg, while Prussia seemed determined to appropriate the 
duchies to herself. Count von Bismarck — the able Prime Minister 
of William I., who became King of Prussia in 1861 — declared in 
the Prussian Diet that the traditional contest between Austria and 
Prussia for supremacy in Germany could only be settled by "blood 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



359 



and iron." In the spring of 1866 both Austria and Prussia armed, 
Austria being supported by the German Federal Diet and by the 
other German states. Italy formed an alliance with Prussia in order 
to get Venetia; and on June 14, 1866, Prussia and Italy pro- 
claimed war against Austria. The Italian army was defeated by the 
Austrians at Custozza (June 24, 1866); and the Italian navy was 
beaten by the Austrian fleet under Admiral Tegethoff, off the island 
of Lissa (July 22, 1866). The Prussian arms were everywhere vic- 
torious in Germany over the allies of Austria; and the Prussian 
princes, with 200,000 men, invaded the Austrian province of Bohe- 
mia, and defeated 200,000 Austrians under Field-Marshal Benedek 
in the great and decisive battle of Sad'owa (July 3, 1866). An 
armistice followed, and the Peace of Prague (August 23, 1866) 
closed the war between Austria and Prussia on terms humiliating to 
Austria, which was excluded from Germany; and Austria ceded 
Venetia to Italy by a treaty of peace in October, 1866. Prussia 
annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Cassel, and 
the free city of Frankfort, by right of conquest. The German Con- 
federation was dissolved, and a North German Confederation, under 
the leadership of Prussia, was established. The North German Diet, 
or Parliament, met February 24, 1867, and framed a constitution. 

12. Keorganization of Austria-Hungary (1867 -'68). — Austria, thus 
expelled from Germany, entered upon an era of liberal reform, 
under the Ministry of the Saxon, Count von Beust. Hungary 
received a separate Diet and Ministry, and was united with Austria 
by a joint assembly, composed of sixty members from each Diet, 
called The Delegations. Popular representative government was 
established in all the Austrian states; civil, political, and religious 
equality was established ; marriage and education were made inde- 
pendent of priestly control; and in a single session of the Austrian 
Reichsrath [rikes'-rawt'\, or Parliament (i867-'68), despotisms of a 
thousand years were swept away, aad Austria-Hungary, so long the 
bulwark of European despotism, became as liberal a constitutional 
monarchy as Great Britain. The Concordat with the Pope was 
annulled in 1870, and perfect religious toleration was established. 
The Emperor Francis Joseph was crowned King of Hungary, at 
Pesth, in 1867; and in 1868 the Empire received the title of The 
Austro- Hungarian Monarchy. 

13. English Reforms (1867-^70). — The cause of reform went on 
in England. In 1858, during the Liberal Ministry of Lord Palmer- 



360 MODERN HISTOR V. 

ston, Parliament passed an act admitting Jews to seats in Parliament. 
In 1867, during the Tory, or Conservative, Ministry of Lord Derby, 
the Second Reform Bill was passed by Parliament and approved by 
the queen ; thus making the right of suffrage almost universal, by 
diminishing the property qualification of voters. In August, 1869, 
during the Liberal Ministry of the Right Hon. William E. Glad- 
stone, the Anglican Church in Ireland was disestablished by Act of 
Parliament; and the condition of the Irish tenants was improved 
by the Irish Land Act of 18/ o. For several years (i 865-' 6 7) — 
during the Liberal Ministry of Lord John Russell and the Conser- 
vative Ministry of Lord Derby — an Irish organization, known as 
the Fenian Brotherhood, revived the agitation for Irish independ- 
ence; and England was obliged to mamtain a military and police 
force of 30,000 men in Ireland to suppress Fenian outbreaks. 

14. Spanish Revolution of 1868. — Under Queen Isabella 11. , Spain 
was distracted by domestic commotions ; while wars were waged 
against Morocco (i 859-' 60) and Peru and Chili (i 864-' 71). For 
several years Spain had been disturbed by chronic revolutionary 
outbreaks, caused by the tyranny of Queen Isabella II. ; and in 
September, 1868, an insurrection headed by Generals Prim and 
Serrano drove the tyrannical queen from the kingdom. A con- 
stituent Cortes framed a new constitution in 1869, and Marshal 
Serrano acted as regent until January, 187 1, when the Duke of 
Aosta, second son of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, became King 
of Spain with the title oi Amadeus I., having been elected by the 
Spanish Cortes, November 17, 1S70. General Prim — the great 
Spanish statesman — was assassinated in his carriage in the streets of 
Madrid, late in December, 1870. 

15. Franco- Germ an War (1870-'71). — Sedan, Metz, Paris. — French 
Republic and German Empire. — Napoleon III. had viewed the rapid 
growth of Prussia under the able statesmanship of Count von Bis- 
marck with open distrust. The proposed candidature of Prince 
Leopold of Hohenzollern for the vacant crown of Spain, led to a 
terrible war of France against Prussia and the other German states, 
in July, 1870 ; King William of Prussia having rejected the demand 
of the Emperor Napoleon III. that the Prussian king should give a 
guaranty that no prince of the House of Hohenzollern should ever 
ascend the throne of Spain. France declared war July 15, 1870; 
and the German armies, under the great strategist. Count von 
Moltke, invaded France. Hostilities began at Saarbriicken, August 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 361 

2, 1870. The Crown-Prince of Prussia defeated the French at 
Weissembourg \wi'-sem-boorg\ (August 4, 1870). On August 6, 
1870, the Prussian Crown-Prince defeated the French under Mar- 
shal MacMahon at Woerth, while General von Steinmetz defeated 
Frossard's French corps at Forbach \J'or''bok\ The Germans, un- 
der Prince Frederick Charles, advanced on Metz and defeated the 
French army under Marshal Bazaine in the great battles of Cour- 
celles \koor-sel'\ Vionville {ye-ong-veel'^ and Gravelotte \^grav' -lot~\ 
(August 14, 16 and 18, 1870); and then blockaded Bazaine's army 
at Metz. In the meantime the Crown-Prince of Prussia, with 
200,000 Germans, followed MacMahon's retreating army and de- 
feated it in the great and decisive battle of Sedan \_sa-dong'^^ (Sep- 
tember I, 1870); and on the following day (September 2, 1870) 
compelled MacMahon's army — 108,000 in number — to surrender 
themselves prisoners of war ; while the Emperor Napoleon III. sur- 
rendered himself a prisoner to King William of Prussia, and lived 
a captive in Germany until the close of the war. The surrender of 
MacMahon's army and of Napoleon III. produced a revolution in 
Paris; the Bonaparte dynasty was deposed, the Third French R/S- 
public was proclaimed, and a provisional government was formed 
under General Trochu \tro-shu'~\, Jules Favre, Leon Gambetta, and 
others (September 4, 1870). The Crown-Prince of Prussia, with 
300,000 Germans, now advanced on Paris, and laid siege to that 
proud capital. Strasbourg surrendered to the Germans (September 
27, 1870), after a vigorous siege and a fierce bombardment which 
shattered its beautiful cathedral tower, and the French garrison 
of 17,000 men under General Uhrich [(?y-r//&] became prisoners of 
war. A month later (October 27, 1870) Metz also capitulated, 
and Bazaine's army, 180,000 strong, also became prisoners of war. 
The French Army of the Loire \^lwar\ under General d'Aurelles 
de Paladines \_do-rels' deh-pal-a-dee7i\ won a victory at Orleans 
(November 9, 1870) ; but was afterwards defeated in a series of battles 
near the same place, and under General de Chanzy at Vendome 
and Le Mans (January 6-11, 1871). The French Army of the 
North under General Faidherbe was beaten at Amiens, Bapaume, 
and St. Quentin ; and the French Army of the East under General 
Bourbaki was defeated by Manteuffel \mon-toi' -fel'\ at Belfort, in 
January, 1871, and driven into Switzerland, where Bourbaki's 
85,000 troops were disarmed. The garrison of Paris, under General 
Trochu, made many unsuccessful sorties; and the city, notwith- 
standing several fierce bombardments, held out heroically until 



362 MODERN HISTORY. 

January 27, 1871, when the garrison, 185,000 strong, capitulated 
and became prisoners of war. King William of Prussia had already 
been proclaimed Emperor of Germany at Versailles (January 19, 
1871) ; thus realizing the dream for the unity of the Fatherland in 
the establishment of a new German Empire under the House of 
Hohenzollern. Upon the fall of Paris an armistice was concluded; 
and a newly-elected French National Assembly at Bordeaux chose 
the great statesman and historian, Louis Adolphe Thiers {te-air^^ 
President of the French Republic. Humiliated France was in- 
capable of any further resistance; her capital and her strong fort- 
resses were in the hands of the Germans, and 700,000 of her troops 
were prisoners of war. By the Peace of Versailles (March 2, 1871) 
France ceded parts of Alsace-Lorraine, including Strasbourg and 
Metz, to Germany, and agreed to pay a war-indemnity of five 
milliards of francs. A definitive treaty was signed at Frankfort-on- 
the-Main, May 10, 1871. The first Diet, or Parliament, of the new 
German Empire assembled at Berlin, the new capital of Germany, 
March 21, 1871 ; a new imperial constitution was soon adopted; 
and Prince Bismarck became Prime-Minister of Germany, as well as 
of Prussia. Napoleon HL died in England, January 9, 1873. 

16. Italy's Unification (1870). — The French troops stationed in 
Rome to defend the Pope's temporal power against Garibaldi's 
attacks having evacuated that city in August, 1870, about 4,000 
Italian troops entered the '^Eternal City" in triumph (September 
20, 1870). The Romans voted, by a large majority, in favor of 
annexation ; and the city of Rome was annexed to the Kingdom of 
Italy, thus ending the Pope's temporal power. On July 3, 1871, 
King Victor Emmanuel removed from Florence to Rome, which then 
became the capital of a united Italy. King Victor Emmanuel died 
January 9, 1878, and was succeeded by his son Humbert. 

17. Rise and fall of the Paris Commune in 1871. — No sooner had 
the Franco-German War ended, in March, 1871, than France was 
distracted by a furious civil war occasioned by a rebellion of the 
Paris Commune. The French Government at Versailles, under the 
able statesman, President Thiers [^te-air''], made ample preparations 
for the reduction of the Paris revolutionists, who seized and gar- 
risoned the Paris forts. The Commune destroyed the Napoleon 
column in the Place Vendome. Bloody battles occurred around 
Paris; and after a siege and bombardment of two months, the Gov- 
ernment forces effected an entrance into Paris, A week's fighting 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 363 

in the streets of the city, and in the suburbs of Montmartre and 
Belleville and the cemetery of Pere la Chaise (May 21-28, 1871), 
ended in the total overthrow of the Communists, or Red Republi- 
cans, who murdered Monseigneur Darboy, Archbishop of Paris, 
and burned the Tuileries, the Louvre, the Hotel de Ville, and the 
Luxembourg palace. About 18,000 Communists were shot by court- 
martial, and many were banished. 

18. Rise and fall of the Spanish Republic (1873->74.)— In Febru- 
ary, 1873, K.i"g Amadeus of Spain, becoming tired of his trouble- 
some crown, abdicated and retired to his native Italy ; whereupon 
the Spanish Cortes declared Spain a Republic (February 11, 1873), 
and a constituent Cortes was elected and convened in May, 1873, 
to frame a new constitution. Successive provisional governments 
under the Republican statesmen — Figueras, Pi y Margall, Salmeron, 
and Castelar — were confronted by a formidable rebellion of the 
Carlists, or adherents of Don Carlos, in the North of Spain; and 
also by a violent insurrection of the Intransigentes, or Spanish Com- 
munists, who held out at Cartagena until January 14, 1874. On 
January 2, 1874, General Pavia dissolved the Cortes by a coup 
(T etat, and Marshal Serrano became President of the Spanish Re- 
public; and late in December, 1874, the Spanish army put an end 
to the Spanish Republic by proclaiming Prince Alfonso, son of the 
deposed Queen Isabella II., King of Spain. The Carlist war went 
on until the spring of 1876, when the Carlists were entirely subdued. 

19. Church versus State in Italy and Germany. — In the meantime 
a bitter struggle had been in progress between the Governments 
of Italy and Germany on the one hand, and the Roman Catholic 
Church on the other. The Roman Catholic clergy in both those 
countries refused to obey the civil law when in conflict with the 
doctrines and practices of the Church, while the Italian and German 
Governments were determined to reduce the clergy to a state of 
subordination to the civil power. In Germany many of the Roman 
Catholic bishops were arrested, fined, and imprisoned, for refusing 
to obey the laws. In June, 1874, a young Catholic named Kull- 
mann attempted to assassinate Prince Bismarck, the able German 
Chancellor, but Bismarck escaped with a slight wound. The power 
of the Ultramotitanes, or extreme Catholics, in Germany, was utterly 
broken by the energetic action of the German Government. Pope 
Pius IX. died February 7, 1878, and was succeeded in the chair of 
St. Peter by Leo XIII. 



3^4 



MODERN HI ST OR Y. 



20. Consolidation of the French Reimbllc. — In the meantime the 
cause of republicanism was slowly but permanently establishing itself 
in France. A violent struggle of the various parties in the National 
Assembly caused the resignation of President Thiers (May 24, 1873), 
whereupon the Assembly elected Marshal MacMahon President of 
the French Republic. The strife of parties went on, the Republi- 
cans gradually growing stronger; and in December, 1875, the 
Republic was definitively established by the proclamation of a new 
constitution by the Assembly, vesting the executive power in a 
President elected for seven years by the Assembly, or legislative 
body, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. In May, 
1877, a violent struggle again broke out between the parties in the 
Assembly, the Monarchists endeavoring to overthrow the Republic 
by causing President MacMahon to dissolve the Chamber of Dep- 
uties; but the French people returned the Republican majority, 
and the schemes of the Monarchists were baffled. The death of 
M. Thiers, in September, 1877, was a great loss to the Republicans, 
whose chief leader thereafter was Leon Gambetta. Subsequent 
elections gave the Republicans a majority in the Senate also, and 
the Monarchical party became utterly powerless. On January 30, 
1879, President MacMahon resigned, whereupon the Assemby 
elected M. Jules Grevy, a leading Republican, President of the 
French Republic. The French Republic sustained an irreparable 
loss in the death of Gambetta (December 31, 1882). The remains 
of this great statesman and patriot were honored with the most 
magnificent funeral pageant ever seen in Paris, 300,000 persons 
being in the procession. 

21. RiLsso-Tiirkish War of 18r7-'78. — Kars and Plevna. — Congress 
of Berlin. — In July, 1875, ^'^ insurrection against the Ottoman Porte 
broke out in the Turkish provinces of Herzegovina \_hert-se-go-ve'- 
ua] and Bosnia; and in July, 1876, a war broke out between the 
Turkish Government and the Turkish principalities of Servia and 
Montenegro. The Servians were utterly beaten by the Turks and 
forced to make peace. Sultan Abdul Aziz was murdered by his 
Ministers (May 30, 1876), and his successor, Amurath V., was 
deposed and succeeded by Abdul Hamid (September 4, 1876). 
During these internal troubles of the Ottoman Porte, Russia was 
secretly abetting the Sultan's enemies; and the general peace of 
Europe was threatened, England being extremely jealous of Russian 
aggression. An unsuccessful attempt was made to preserve peace 
by a conference of the Great Powers at Constantinople; and the 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 365 

Sultan having rejected the demands of the Czar, Russian armies 
invaded both European and Asiatic Turkey, in April, 1877, ^-nd 
war between Russia and Turkey was the result. The Turkish prin- 
cipalities of Roumania and Montenegro, and afterwards Servia, 
joined Russia in the war. In Asiatic Turkey the Turks were at 
first successful, driving the Russians out of Armenia, which they 
had invaded ; but the Russians returned and defeated Mukhtar 
Pacha's army; and on November 18, 1877, General Loris Melikoff 
captured Kars by storm, with its garrison of 15,000 Turks, after a 
vigorous siege, thus completely breaking the power of the Turks in 
that quarter. The Russians were at first also unfortunate in Euro- 
pean Turkey, having been three times disastrously beaten at Plevna 
(July 19 and 30, and September 9-12, 1877); but they finally cap- 
tured that stronghold with Osman Pacha's army of 40,000 men 
(December 10, 1877), after a memorable and protracted siege; 
while the Russians gallantly held the Shipka Pass against Suleiman 
Pacha's desperate assaults (August 21-September 2, 1877). The 
fall of Plevna placed the Ottoman Empire at the mercy of the Rus- 
sians, who then advanced toward Constantinople and made the 
Sultan tremble in his capital, defeating Suleiman Pacha's army, 
while Mehemet Ali's army was also unable to oppose the Russian 
advance. An armistice, placing the Dannbian fortresses and Erze- 
roum in Russian hands (February 8, 1878), was followed by the 
Peace of San Stef ano (March 2, 1878), by which Turkey was dis- 
membered; Servia, Roumania, and Montenegro becoming inde- 
pendent states; and Bulgaria having but a nominal dependence on 
the Ottoman Porte, which was also to pay a large war-indemnity to 
Russia. In the meantime England under Lord Beaconsfield (Mr. 
Disraeli), and Austria-Hungary under Count Andrassy, appeared 
extremely jealous of Russia ; and war was threatened when the Rus- 
sians advanced on Constantinople, the British Mediterranean fleet 
under Admiral Hornby having passed the Dardanelles about the 
middle of February, 1878; but all difficulties were settled by a 
Congress of the Great European Powers at Berlin in the summer of 
1878. The Congress of Berlin assigned Bosnia and Herzegovina 
to Austria-Hungary, which only secured possession of those Turkish 
provinces after a bloody struggle of two months with the Bosnians. 
By a secret treaty, Turkey ceded Cyprus to England (June, 1878). 
22. German Socialism and Russian Nihilism. — Assassination of the 
Czar Alexander U. — Meanwhile new questions were engaging the at- 
tention of European statesmen. The revolutionary doctrine of 



366 MODERN HISTORY. 

Socialism — a reorganization of property on a basis of equality, with 
a complete subversion of established social institutions — was making 
rapid progress in Germany ; and an equally radical and revolution- 
ary doctrine, called Nihilism, was growing in Russia. The progress 
of Socialism in Germany was promoted by industrial prostration 
and general social distress. Two unsuccessful Socialistic attempts 
were made in 1878 (May 11. and June 2,) to assassinate the Empe- 
ror William, in the streets of Berlin, in the second of which the 
venerable Emperor was severely wounded ; whereupon the German 
Government, becoming alarmed, dissolved the Reichstag \rike^- 
tog\, or popular branch of the nnperial Diet, and secured the 
election of a majority in the new Reichstag favorable to repressive 
legislation. The new Reichstag passed a bill for the suppression of 
Socialism. In the fall of 1878 unsucce.ssful Socialistic attempts 
were made to assassinate King Alfonso of Spain and King Humbert 
of Italy. In the spring of 1878 the Nihilist agitation in Russia 
assumed great importance in the trial and acquittal, by a jury, of a 
young maiden named Vera Sassulitch, for attempting to assassinate 
General Trepoff, Prefect of Police in St. Petersburg, and her suc- 
cessful attempt in eluding a second arrest by escaping to Geneva, 
in Switzerland. Baron Heyking, Prefect of Police in Kiev, and 
General Mezentzefif, Prefect of Police in St. Petersburg, were after- 
wards assassinated by Nihilist conspirators. In April, 1879, ^^ 
unsuccessful attempt was made to assassinate the Czar, in St. Peters- 
burg; in consequence of which martial law was proclaimed in 
Russia. In December, 1879, ^ train on which the Czar was sup- 
posed to be, was maliciously wrecked near Moscow ; and in Febru- 
ary, 1880, a portion of the Czar's Winter Palace, in St. Petersburg, 
was undermined and blown up; whereupon the Czar appointed 
General Loris Melikoff Dictator. Finally, Sunday, March 13, 1881, 
the Czar Alexander II. was killed in the streets of St. Petersburg 
by the bursting of a nitro-glycerine glass-bomb thrown at his feet 
by a Nihilist assassin — an act which astounded the whole civilized 
world. His son, Alexander III., was immediately proclaimed Em- 
peror. The assassins — among whom was Sophie Pieoffsky, a young 
maiden of noble birth and highly educated — were tried, condemned, 
and hanged April 15, 1881. 

23. Eng-land's recent wars. — In 1868 a British military expedition 
under General Robert Napier invaded Abyssinia, and defeated and 
' killed King Theodore at Magdala. Early in 1874 a British mili- 
tary expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley defeated the Ashantees, 



IvINETEENTH CENTURY. 367 

captured Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, and compelled King 
Koffee to accept humiliating terms of peace. Late in 1878 an 
Anglo-Indian army invaded Afghanistan, defeated the Afghans, 
and dictated terms of peace; but in September, 1879, the British 
garrison left in Cabul was massacred by the Afghans, who were, 
however, finally subdued by General Roberts. In January, 1879, 
a British force of 600 men was cut to pieces at Isandula, in Zulu- 
land; but the Zulus were finally conquered, and King Cetywayo 
was taken prisoner. In this war the son of Napoleon III. was killed 
by the Zulus. In 1877 •^he Dutch Republic of the Trans- Vaal, in 
South Africa, was annexed to the British colony of the Cape; but 
late in 1880, the Boers, or Dutch farmers of the Trans- Vaal, rose 
in arms to recover their independence, and after the English Gen- 
eral Colley had been defeated in three engagements, in the last of 
which he was killed (February 27, 1881), the British restored the 
independence of the Boers. 

24. Russia's Central Asian wars. — In 1859 the Russians conquered 
Circassia, after a struggle of thirty years, by the capture of the 
valiant Circassian warrior-prophet Schamyl \_shanil -il\ In the 
meantime, the Russians extended their dominion over Turkestan, 
subduing the Khan of Bokhara in 1868, the Khan of Khiva in 1873, 
the Khan of Khokand in 1875, ^'^d *he Turkomans in 1881. 

25. Soutli American wars. — In 1864 a naval war broke out be- 
tween Spain and Peru, and in 1865 Chili joined Peru in the war; 
and Valparaiso, in Chili, and Callao, in Peru, were bombarded by 
the Spanish navy, and peace was only made in 1871. In 1865 
Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Confederation united in a war 
against Paraguay; and the war lasted until 1870, when the heroic 
and valiant Paraguayan Dictator, Francisco Lopez \_lo-pait]i\ was 
defeated and killed by the Brazilians. In the spring of 1879 
Bolivia and Peru united in a war against Chili; and the Chilians 
invaded Bolivia and Peru, defeated the allies, occupied Lima, the 
Peruvian capital, in January, 1881, and dictated terms of peace. 

26. Ag^rarian agitation in Ireland, and the Irish Land Act of 1881. — 

The most important events in the recent domestic affairs of Great 
Britain were the creation of Queen Yxctoxiz. Empress of India hy 
Act of Parliament (April, 1876), the queen being proclaimed Empress 
of India with great pomp at Delhi (January i, 1877) ; the elevation 
of Mr. Benjamin Disraeli, the head of the Conservative Ministry 
then in power, to the House of Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield (1876) ; 



368 MODERN HISTOR V. 

the agrarian agitation in Ireland in 1879 and 1880; and the Irish 
Land Bill of 1881. A famine in Ireland in 1879 led to an agrarian 
agitation of huge dimensions; and a formidable political and social 
organization, known as the In'sh Land League, rapidly arose in 
Ireland. The leaders of the Irish agitation were Charles Stewart 
Parnell, John Dillon, and Michael Davitt, members of Parliament. 
Parnell and other agitators addressed large meetings of Irish peas- 
ants in different parts of the Emerald Isle, urging the peasants to 
demand land reform and to refuse the payment of exorbitant rents 
to landlords. The peasants accordingly refused the payment of 
rents and resisted evictions by landlords and land-agents, some of 
whom fell victims to the vengeance of the peasants. There were 
riots and disturbances in Ireland during the year 1880, and general 
lawlessness prevailed throughout the island. British troops, to the 
number of 30,000, were sent into Ireland, in the fall of 1880, to aid 
the police in maintaining order, and to suppress any attempt at re- 
bellion; and Mr. Parnell and the other Irish leaders were prose- 
cuted by the British Government, but the prosecutions failed. In 
April, 1880, Lord Beaconsfield's Conservative Ministry had been 
succeeded by a Liberal Ministry under Mr. Gladstone, and Lord 
Beaconsfield died April 19, 1881. After the passage of a Coercion 
Act by Parliament to restore order in Ireland, and after the im- 
prisonment of Michael Davitt, John Dillon, and other Irish agita- 
tors, the Gladstone Ministry introduced an Lnsh Land Bill for the 
benefit of the Irish peasantry (April, 1881). After a series of spir- 
ited debates, the Lrish Land Act passed both Houses of Parliament, 
and received the royal assent August 22, 1881. As the Land 
League agitation continued after the passage of the Land Act, the 
Gladstone Ministry imprisoned Mr. Parnell and the other agitators 
(October, 1881), and the Irish Land League was declared illegal 
and was completely suppressed. Early in May, 1882, Messrs. 
Parnell and Davitt were liberated, and Mr. Gladstone undertook to 
abandon the Coercion Act and to adopt a conciliatory policy toward 
Ireland. To carry out this policy, the Right Hon. William E. 
Forster, Chief-Secretary for Ireland, and Earl Cowper, Lord-Lieu- 
tenant of Ireland, resigned. No sooner had Earl Spencer, the new 
Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, and Lord Frederick Cavendish, the 
new Chief-Secretary for Ireland, entered upon their duties in Dub- 
lin Castle, than Lord Frederick Cavendish and Under-Secretary 
Burke were assassinated in cold blood in Phoenix Park, Dublin, 
while the park was crowded with an assemblage to rejoice over the 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 369 

release of the Irish suspects (May 6, 1882), The murder of the 
amiable Lord Frederick Cavendish, who had been sent as a peace- 
ofifering to Ireland, excited horror throughout England, Ireland, 
and the civilized world, and Parliament passed a new repression 
bill. Parliament also passed an act for the relief of tenants in arrears 
of rent. Shocking agrarian murders were still committed in Ire- 
land, but the assassins were arrested, tried, convicted, and executed. 
The assassins of Lord Frederick Cavendish and Under-Secretary 
Burke were at last discovered, and were tried, convicted, and exe- 
cuted in the spring of 1883. 

27. England's War in Ej?ypt. — The subserviency of the Khedive 
of Egypt and his suzerain, the Sultan of Turkey, to the influence of 
England and France in Egypt, aroused the jealousy of the Egyptian 
National party, whose cry was '-'Egypt for the Egyptians. " In 
April, 1879, the Egyptian army forced the Khedive Ismail Pacha 
to abdicate, and Tewfik Pacha became Khedive of Egypt. England 
had purchased two-thirds of the Suez Canal stock in 1875, ^^^s 
securing a controlling interest m that great highway to the East. 
In 1879 England and France established a joint control over 
the finances of Egypt. The heavy interest paid to English and 
French bondholders retarded the material prosperity of Egypt, and 
increased the jealousy of the Egyptian National party against foreign 
influence. In September, 1881, a military riot forced the Khedive 
to change his Ministry. In the spring of 1882, Arabi Pacha, the 
Egyptian Minister of War, arrayed the Egyptian army against the 
Khedive and foreign influence in Egypt. The Khedive became 
utterly powerless, and Arabi Pacha became virtual master of Egypt. 
The Europeans were mobbed in Alexandria, and about 300 were 
massacred (June 11, 1882). The hostile attitude of Arabi Pacha 
caused England to intervene to restore the Khedive's authority, and 
to protect the Suez Canal — her highway to India. Arabi Pacha, 
strengthened the fortifications of Alexandria, and his refusal to de- 
sist caused the bombardment and destruction of the forts at Alex- 
andria by the British fleet under Admiral Seymour (July 11, 1882).. 
The next day Arabi Pacha evacuated Alexandria under protection 
of a flag of truce, whereupon the Bedouins and liberated convicts 
plundered the city, laid one-third of the city in ashes, and massa- 
cred 2,000 Christians and Europeans (July 13, 1882.) Great. 
Britain then sent land troops to Egypt from England and India. 
The British seized the Suez Canal late in August, 1882, and the 
British fleet conveyed the land troops up the Canal to the head of 
24 



3 7 o MODERN HIS TOR V. 

the Red Sea. After defeating the Egyptian rebels at Rameses and 
Kassassin, the British under Sir Garnet Wolseley dispersed Arabi 
Pacha's army at Tel-el-kebir, took Arabi Pacha prisoner, and entered 
Cairo in triumph (September 13, 1882). The Khedive's authority 
was thus fully restored by British bayonets, and British influence 
became paramount in Egypt. Arabi Pacha and the other Egyptian 
rebel leaders were court-martialed and exiled early in December, 
1882. Arabi Pacha was assigned a residence in the island of Ceylon 
by the British. 

28. Socialism in Europe. — The years 1882 and 1883 were signal- 
ized by Socialistic agitation in every country in Continental Europe. 
During the fall of 1882 there were Anarchist riots at Lyons and 
Monceaux les Mines \nion-so-le-meeri\ in France, and the French 
Republic was disturbed for several months by Anarchist and Com- 
munistic agitation ; and Louise Michel \loo-ees' me-shel''] and Prince 
Krapotkine, a Russian Nihilist exile, were arrested, tried, convicted, 
sentenced, and imprisoned, for their part in the disturbances. 
There were also Socialistic disturbances and dynamite plots in the 
Austro-Hungarian Empire, in Italy, in Spain, and in Portugal ; and 
in August, 1S83, there was a military uprising in favor of a republic 
in Spain, but it was easily suppressed. In Germany Prince Bis- 
marck endeavored to make the Anti-Socialist Law more stringent. 
In Russia thousands of Nihilists were arrested and exiled to Siberia, 
in consequence of their numerous assassinations and dynamite plots ; 
and in January, 1884, the Czar Alexander III. was shot at and 

•slightly wounded. In England, Irish conspirators used dynamite 
with terrible effect, blowing up the Local Government Building in 

TLondon (March 15, 1883); but some of the Irish dynamite manu- 

•facturers were detected, arrested, tried, convicted, and imprisoned 
for life. Another explosion occurred in tlie Victoria Railway Station 

^ in London, late in February, 1884. A frightful explosion occurred 
in Scotland Yard, London, May 30, 1884. 

29. France's recent wars. — In May, 1881, a French military ex- 
pedition occupied Tunis, with the ostensible purpose of chastising 
• marauding Arab tribes; and the Bey of Tunis was forced to accept 
•a. treaty making Tunis a virtual dependency of France. In 1883 

France became involved in a war with the Queen of Madagascar, 
.and a French fleet bombarded and took Tamatave, June 19, 1883. 
':In 1883 France also waged war against the Empire of Anam for the 
■; possession of Tonquin \^to?t-keen''\; and the French gained several 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



371 



victories and made a successful sortie from Hanoi (July 19, 1883), 
and from Namdinh (August 7, 1883), and bombarded Hue \Jiua\, 
the Anamese capital (August 18, 1883). The Treaty of Hue (August 
25, 1883) did not end the war, as the war party in Anam was sup- 
ported by China, whose Emperor claimed a suzerainty over Ton- 
quin. The Chinese now took the field against the French, but were 
routed at Haiphong (December 9, 1883) ; and the French captured 
Sontay (December 16, 1883), Bacninh (March 14, 1884), and 
Hung-Hoa (April 15, 1884). A treaty of peace early in May, 1884, 
gave the French great advantages. 

30. The False Prophet of the Soudan. — Mohammed Achmet, the 
new Messiah of Islam — better known as El Mahdi, or the False 
Prophet — led the Mohammedan tribes of the Soudan against the 
Egyptians in 1881, and in 1882 he gained repeated victories over 
the Egyptian forces. El Mahdi disputed the title of Caliph with the 
Sultan of Turkey, and his followers were inspired with unbounded 
religious enthusiasm. At El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan, in 
November, 1883, El Mahdi, at the head of 300,000 followers, cut 
to pieces an Egyptian army of 10,000 men under Hicks Pacha, an 
Englishman in the Egyptian service ; thus creating the greatest 
alarm and terror in Cairo, and causing the rebellion to spread with 
lightning-like rapidity throughout the Egyptian Soudan. Another 
Egyptian force was utterly slaughtered in a sortie from Suakim 
(December 5, 1883). An Egyptian force under Baker Pacha, also 
an Englishman in the Egyptian service, was annihilated by the 
False Prophet's followers (February 4, 1884). The Egyptian rebels 
— Arab allies of the False Prophet — under Osman Digma, captured 
Sinkat (February 11, 1884) and massacred the garrison with the 
women and children, and compelled the garrison of Tokar to sur- 
render (February 21, 1884). England interfered in favor of the 
Khedive of Egypt, and a small English force under General Graham 
was sent against the Arab rebels of Nubia and the Soudan. General 
Graham's force defeated Osman Digma's rebel force with heavy 
loss at Teb (February 29, 1884) and at Tamanieb (March 13, 1884), 
and burned Tamanieb and dispersed the rebels (March 27, 1884). 
In the meantime Gordon Pacha, an Englishman long in the Egyp- 
tian service, was defeated by El Mahdi's forces near Khartoum 
(March 16, 1884), and was in a perilous position at Khartoum. 
The Arab rebels massacred the garrison of Shendy, with 2,000 of 
its inhabitants — men, women, and children (April 15, 1884); and 
captured Berber and massacred its inhabitants (May 26, 1884). 



372 



MODERN HISTORY. 



SECTION VI.— PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION IN THE NINE- 
TEENTH CENTURY. 

1. General process. — During the nineteenth century more has 
been done for the elevation of the human race and for the cause ot 
civilization than in all other centuries combined. It has been a 
period of liberal political ideas, democratic and revolutionary, and 
social and political improvement of the masses. It has been an age 
of wonderful advancement in education, discovery and invention. 

2. Political progress. — During the nineteenth century govern- 
ments have become more liberal throughout the civilized world. 
The cause of democracy has taken rapid strides. Every country of 
Europe at the present time — with the exception of Russia and 
Turkey — has a constitution and a legislative assembly in which the 
people are represented. Modern constitutional liberty — the pro- 
duct of the liberty-loving Anglo-Saxon race — after fully developing 
itself in England and North America, has spread over the continent 
of Europe. The shot fired at Lexington, April 19, 1775 — "the 
shot that went round the world" — produced lasting results. A 
model republic was established in North America; the French 
Revolution and the Napoleonic wars broke down the remains of 
mediaeval feudalism in Europe ; and the constitutional struggles of 
the nineteenth century sounded the death-knell of European abso- 
lutism. Among the grand strides which liberty has made during 
the nineteenth century may be mentioned the gradual enfranchise- 
ment of the masses in Great Britain, France, and other European 
countries; the establishment of the French Republic; the liberal- 
izing of Austria-Hungary — that former bulwark of European des- 
potism ; the emancipation of the masses in Spain, Italy, Prussia, 
Germany, and other European countries ; the emancipation of the 
Spanish American countries ; the emancipation and enfranchise- 
ment of the colored population of the United States ; the suppression 
of the African slave-trade by the energetic action of Great Britain ; 
and the long-desired unification of Italy and Germany. 

8. Material progress. — Important inventions have contributed to 
man's happiness and comfort. Steam and electricity have been 
wonderful factors in modern civilization. Steam has been applied 
to innumerable uses. Steamboats ply the rivers, and steamships 
have taken the place of the old sailing vessels, while railroads have 
been instrumental in developing human progress. Steam vessels 
and steam railway cars have made travel easy and rapid. In 1830 
there were 206 miles of railway; in 1881 about 225,000 miles. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



373 



The electro-magnetic telegraph, first used in 1844 between Balti- 
more and Washington, has come into general use, so that in 1881 
there were almost 500,000 miles of telegraph line in the world. The 
first Atlantic cable was laid successfiilly in 1866; and now there 
are ocean Cables in different parts of the world. Printing-presses 
have been brought to a great degree of perfection. The sewing- 
machine — first patented by Elias Howe, of Massachusetts, in 1846 
— has come into general use. The process of vulcanizing India- 
rubber was invented by Charles Goodyear, of Connecticut. The 
chemical action of light has been turned to account in the process 
of daguerreotyping, and likewise in photographing. There have 
been numerous minor inventions. Wonderful advances have been 
made in the art of war. The large siege-guns and batteries which 
have been invented, are capable of reducing city walls and fort- 
resses of the greatest strength; while iron-clad war-vessels and gun- 
boats have taken the place of the old "wooden walls," and com- 
pletely revolutionized the methods of modern naval warfare. 

4. Intellectual and educational progi'ess. — Popular education has 
made rapid strides during the nineteenth century. The clothing 
of the masses with political power in America and Europe has been 
the means of establishing public schools for the diffusion of intellec- 
tual enlightenment. In the United States education is very general 
among the masses ; while in Prussia and the other German states a 
compulsory school system has for some time prevailed. The en- 
franchisement of the masses in Great Britain, France, and other 
European countries has led to the establishment of compulsory sys- 
tems of education in those countries. The newspaper press has been 
a wonderful educator of the masses during the nineteenth century. 
In Great Britain and the United States the press is free ; while in 
most countries of Europe newspapers are more or less under govern- 
ment censorship, and their liberty is somewhat restricted. 

5. Diffusion of European civilization. — Commercial and diplomatic 
intercourse has also been greatly extended during the nineteenth 
century. The occupation of portions of Africa, Asia, and Oceanica 
by European nations has been productive of great good to human- 
ity, and has extended European civilization to every quarter of the 
globe. The occupation of Australia, South Africa, India, New 
Zealand, Borneo, and various small islands in Oceanica by Great 
Britain, has been a blessing to the cause of civilization, because it 
has tended to diffuse the language, institutions, and love of liberty 



274 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

of the Anglo-Saxon race. India, under British rule, has been vastly 
benefited. Railroads and telegraphs cross the country in every 
direction; the system of castes, and ancient superstitions and 
shocking religious customs, are rapidly giving way to more enlight- 
ened usages; and the despotism of the native princes has abated. 
The empires of China and Japan — the seats of the oldest civiliza- 
tions yet existing — have lately been opened to intercourse with the 
Western nations. England's opium war with China and the con- 
sequent Treaty of Nankin, and the commercial treaty between the 
United States and Japan in 1854, have contributed wonderfully 
toward opening the extreme East to the trade and the civilizing 
influences of Europe and America. The Suez Canal — projected by 
the Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps, and completed in 1867 — 
has shortened the route to India. 

6. Great i>ower, extent, and civilizing inHuence of the British Em- 
pire. — The rude island of Britain, which at Caesar's invasion two 
thousand years ago was inhabited by savages, is now the ruling 
centre of the grandest empire which has ever existed — an empire 
scattered over every portion of the globe, and on which the sun 
never sets. The three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ire- 
land, together with the Principality of Wales, embrace about thirty- 
five million inhabitants ; and London, the capital and metropolis 
of the British Empire, contains a population of five millions. The 
entire United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, together with 
the various British possessions in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, 
and Oceanica — the whole forming the British Empire — contains 
over three hundred million inhabitants — a greater number than 
those of any other empire, excepting China, which has one-fourth 
of the population of the globe within its limits. Great Britain ex- 
ercises a commanding influence upon the destinies of the world, 
and has done more for the spread of liberty, civilization, and 
Christianity than all other nations combined. The Anglo-Saxon 
race is superior to all other races, being especially noted for its 
enterprise and love of liberty; and the two great Anglo-Saxon 
nations of the world — Great Britain and the United States — are the 
leaders of modern civilization. The English language is spoken in 
more parts of the world than any other language, and its literature 
is more extensive than that of any other tongue. Great Britain is 
the leading commercial, maritime, manufacturing, and colonial 
power in the world ; her commerce extending to every clime, her 
fleets ruling the seas, her colonies being found in every quarter of 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



375 



the globe, and her manufactures being so various and extensive that 
she is called "The Workshop of the World." Our own Webster 
has spoken of the British Empire as a power that "has dotted the 
surface of the globe with her possessions and military posts, whose 
morning drum-beat, following the sun, and keeping company with 
the hours, circles the earth daily, with one continuous and unbroken 
strain of the martial airs of England." 

7. Explorations. — Great geographical explorations in the Arctic 
regions were made during the nineteenth century by the English 
navigators, Ross, Parry, Sir John Franklin, and McClure (the last 
of whom discovered a useless Northwest passage in 1852); and by 
the Americans, De Haven, Kane, Hayes, Hall, De Long, and 
Greely. Since 18 19 discoveries have been made in the Antarctic 
regions by English, French, and American navigators; and Captain 
Ross, of the British navy, discovered a narrow strip of land in 1841, 
and named it Victoria Land; while Captain Wilkes, of the United 
States navy, discovered a narrow strip of land, 1,700 miles long, 
and named it the Antarctic Continent. The interior of Africa was 
explored by the Englishmen, Mungo Park and Sir Samuel Baker; 
the Frenchman, Du Chailleu ; the Scotchman, Dr. David Living- 
stone; and the American, Henry M. Stanley. In Western Africa 
the British colony of Sierra Leone was founded in 1787 by English 
philanthropists as a refuge for liberated slaves; and in 1821 the 
American Colonization Society founded the free negro Republic 
of Liberia as a refuge for emancipated and refugee slaves, and for 
the civilzation of Africa. 

8. Archjeology and Philology. — Science has been making rapid 
strides during the nineteenth century. Diligent scholars have been 
pursuing their researches into every branch with the most encour- 
aging results. Bonaparte's conquest of Egypt in 1798 was a great 
benefit to modern civilization ; and since that period learned 
European Egyptologists, like the Frenchman Champollion, and 
others, have brought to light many hitherto-unknown facts in an- 
cient Egyptian history, by deciphering the hieroglyphics on the 
monumental ruins of Egypt. The excavation of ancient ruins in 
Asia Minor, and in the regions of the Euphrates and the Tigris by 
the Englishmen Layard, Rawlinson, and others, have given us new 
light on the ancient world — especially Chaldsea, Assyria, and Baby- 
lon. The science of comparative philology — under such learned 
German scholars as the Grimm brothers, Bopp, Schelgel, and Max 



376 MODERN HIS TOR K 

Miiller (the last of whom has spent most of his life in England as 
professor of philology at Oxford) — has thrown much light on the 
origin of nations. 

9. Inventors. — Robert Fulton (i 765-1815) — an American, born 
in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania — invented the steamboat ; the 
first successful voyage being made on the Hudson in 1807. 

Sir Mark Isambard Brunel (i 769-1849) — a celebrated engineer 
— projected the Thames Tunnel; begun in 1826 and finished in 

1843. 

George Stephenson (i 781-1848) — an English engineer — 
invented the locomotive engine in 1814. 

Daguerre (1789-1851) — a Frenchman — invented the daguerre- 
otype. 

Samuel F. B. Morse (1791-1871) — an American, born in 
Massachusetts — invented the electro-magnetic telegraph; the first 
public use of which was made between Washington and Baltimore 
in 1844, in dispatching an account of the proceedings of the con- 
vention which nominated James K. Polk for the Presidency of the 
United States. 

Cyrus W. Field (born 181 9), of New York, projected the 
Atlantic Cable ; which was successfully laid in the summer of 1866. 

Elias Howe (1819-1867) — a native of Massachusetts — invented 
the sewing machine ; for which he obtained a patent in 1846. 

Thomas A. Edison (born 1847) — ^^i American — is famous for 
his numerous inventions of electrical machines, and for his discov- 
eries and experiments in electric light. 

Captain John Ericsson (born 1803) — a Swedish- American — in- 
vented the propeller for steam war-vessels, and also the iron-clad 
Monitor. The first combat between iron-clad vessels was between 
the Monitor and the Merrimac, in the American civil war. 

10. Progress of Science. — 

The Four Great Naturalists. 

Alexander von Humboldt (i 769-1859) — the greatest of Ger- 
man naturalists — traveled over both continents, and in his Kosnios 
gave an account of the physical phenomena of the universe. 

Cuvier \ku-ve-d'\ (i 769-1832) — a Swiss, but who lived most of 
his life in Paris — was a renowned naturalist, whose chief works are 
The Animal Kingdom and Discourses on the Revolutions of the 
Surface of the Globe. He was Minister of Education under 
Napoleon I. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Ill 



Louis J. R. Agassiz \a^-a-se\ (1807-1873) — a Swiss by birth, 
but who spent the last twenty-five years of his life in the United 
States — was an eminent naturalist, and author of Poissons Fossiles, 
Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, and 
Methods of Study in Natural History. 

Haeckel (born 1834) ranks as a great German naturalist and 
evolutionist. 

The Two Great English Naturalists and Darwinian Philosophers. 

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) — a renowned English naturalist 
and the leading advocate of the " Darwinian theory," or the theory 
of evolution — wrote The Origin of Species, The Descent of Man, 
Variations of Animals and Plants, Expression in Man and Animals, 
and other works. 

Thomas Henry Huxley (born 1825) — a great English naturalist 
— 'wrote. Man s Place in Nature, Comparative A nato/ny, Protoplasm, 
Lay Sermons, and other works. 

The Four Great English and Scotch Chemists and Natural Philoso- 
phers. 

Sir Humphry Davy (i 778-1829) — a celebrated English chemist 
and natural philosopher — discovered many scientific facts and 
principles, and invented the safety-lamp for miners. 

Sir David Brewster (i 781-1868) — an illustrious Scotch scientist 
and editor of the Edinburgh Encyclopedia — was celebrated for his 
discoveries in optics, and wrote Letters on Natural Afagic, Life of 
Newton, Life of Kepler, Life of Galileo, etc. 

Michael Faraday (i 791-1869) — an eminent English chemist 
and natural philosopher — made many important discoveries in mag- 
netic electricity and light, and was a famous lecturer on scientific 
subjects. 

John Tyndall (born 1820) — a great English natural philosopher 
and lecturer on scientific subjects — wrote Heat considered as a Modt 
of Motion, Glaciers of the Alps, On Sound, zxid other noted scien- 
tific works. 

Other Chemists and Natural Philosophers. 

Oersted (1777-1851) — a Dane — discovered the identity of mag- 
netism and electricity. 

LiEBiG (1803-18 73) — a great German chemist and professor at 
Munich — wrote considerably on the chemistry of agriculture and 
physiology. 



378 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



The Two Great Scotch Geologists. 

Hugh Miller (1802-185 6) — a renowned Scotch geologist — wrote 
Old Red Sandstone, Footprints of the Creator, Testimony of the 
Rocks, My Schools and Schoolmasters, and other works. 

Sir Charles Lyell (i 797-1875) — an eminent Scotch geologist 
— wrote Elements of Geology, Antiquity of Man, Travels in North 
America, etc. 

The Ttvo Great French Astronomers. 

Arago (17S6-1852) was a renowned French astronomer and 
Superintendent of the Paris Observatory. 

Leverrier \_le-ver-re-a''\ (1811-1877) — a distinguished French 
astronomer — by his mathematical calculation prepared the way for 
the discovery of the planet Neptune in 1846. 

Other Great Astronomers. 

Ormsby Macknight Mitchel (1810-1862) was a famous Ameri- 
can astronomer, and a general on the National side in the Civil War. 

Richard Anthony Proctor (born 1837) ranks as a great Eng- 
lish astronomer. 

Great Gennan Physicians and their Discoveries. 

Dr. Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843) — a German physician — 
originated homeopathy. 

Dr. Franz Josef Gall (1758-1828) and Dr. Johann Caspar 
Spurzheim (i 776-1832) — German physicians — founded phrenology. 

11. Philosopliy and Metaphysics. — 

German Philosophers and Metaphysicians. 

Hegel (1770-1831) was the founder of a new school of phil- 
osophy. 

FiCHTE (1762-1814) was the "ideal pantheist." 

ScHELLiNG (i 775-1854) was the last of the four great German 
philosophers — Kant, Hegel, Fichte, Schelling. 

Schleiermacher (i 768-1 834) — a divine and philosopher — was a 
pantheist. 

Schopenhauer (i 788-1860) was called "the European Bud- 
dhist." 

Feuerbach [foi' -er-bok'] (1804-1872) was a noted metaphysician. 

Strauss (i 808-1 874) was a celebrated philosopher and Ration- 
alist divine. 

Hartmann (born 1840) is a noted German philosopher. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



379 



French Philosophers and Metaphysicians. 

CoMTE (1798-185 7) — a renowned French philosopher — was the 
author of Positive Philosophy. 

Cousin \koo-zan^'\ (i 792-1867) was a famous French metaphy- 
sician and philosopher. 

Scotch Philosophers and Metaphysicians. 

DuGALD Stewart (i 753-1828) — a great Scotch mental and moral 
philosopher — was Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University 
of Edinburgh. 

Sir William Hamilton (i 788-1856) — a great Scotch metaphy- 
sician and logician, and professor in the University of Edinburgh — 
wrote works on mental philosophy and logic. 

English Philosophers. 

Jeremy Bentham (i 747-1832) — a great English political philos- 
opher and judicial reformer — wrote Utilitaria7iism and many works 
on political reform. 

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) — a great English philosopher 
and thinker — wrote Political Economy, Essay on Liberty, System 
of Logic, etc. 

Henry Thomas Buckle (1822-1862) achieved fame by his 
History of Civilizatiofi. 

Herbert Spencer (born 1820) — a distinguished English philos- 
opher — wrote Social Statics, Principles of Psychology, Education, 
First Principles of Sociology, and other works. 

12. English Literature of the Age of Scott. — 
Eight Great Poets. 

Sir Walter Scott (i 771-1832) — a great Scotch poet and novel- 
ist — wrote many poems and the Waverley novels, also a Life of 
Napoleon Bonaparte. 

Robert Southey (i 774-1 843) — one of the three Lake poets, and 
poet- laureate for a time — wrote Life of Nelson, Life of Cowper, and 
Life of Wesley. 

William Wordsworth (i 770-1850) — another of the Lake poets, 
and poet-laureate after Southey — wrote The Excursion, The IVhite 
Doe of Rylstone, etc. 

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) — the third of the Lake 
poets — wrote The Ancient Mariner and Christobal, and prose works. 

Percy Bysshe Shelley (i 792-1822) — a celebrated dramatic and 
lyric poet — was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia. 



3 So MODERN HIS TOR Y. 

Lord Byron (i 788-1824) — one of the most famous of English 
poets — was the author of Childe Harohf s Pilgrimage and other 
poems; and died at Missolonghi, in Greece, at the age of thirty-six. 

Thomas Moore (1779-1852) — the great national poet of Ireland 
— was famous for his lyrics. 

Thomas Campbell (177 7-1 8 44) — a famous Scotch poet — was the 
author oi Pleasures of Hope, Ye Mariners of England, Gertrude of 
Wyomiitg, Hohenlinden, etc. 

Other Poets. 
Other English poets were John Keats (i 796-1820), who died at 
the age of twenty-four; James Sheridan Knowles (1784-1862), 
author of William Tell, Virginius, and other dramas ; Thomas 
Hood (i 798-1845), author of The Bridge of Siglis and Song of the 
Shirt; Samuel Rogers (i 763-1855), a London banker; and the 
Rev. George Crabbe (i 754-1832). Among Scotch poets were 
James Montgomery (i 771-1854); James 11000(1772-1835); and 
Robert Pollok (i 799-1827). Female poets were Mrs. Felicia 
Dorothea Hemans (i 794-1835); Miss Joanna Baillie (1762- 
1851); Miss Letitia E. Landon (1802-1838); and Miss Eliza 
Cook (born 181 7). 

Three Great Prose Writers. 

Thomas De Quincey (i 785-1859) — " the English Opium Eater" 
— was a brilliant writer, and wrote Confessions of an English Opium 
Eater. 

Lord Brougham (i 778-1868) — a great scholar, orator, states- 
man, jurist, and reviewer — was one of the great lights of the nine- 
teenth century, was born at Edinburgh, and was of English and 
Scotch descent. 

Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847) — a great Scotch divine — was 
the leader of the Free Church of Scotland, and Professor of The- 
ology in the University of Edinburgh. 

Novelists, Essayists, and Historians. 
Mrs. Anna Letitia Barbauld (i 743-1825) wrote for children. 
The Countess D' Arblay (1752-1840); Jane Austen (1775- 
1817); Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849); and Miss Mary Russell 
Mitford (1786-1855) were novelists. Charles Lamb (i 775-1834); 
Sir James Mackintosh (1765-1832) ; and William Hazlitt (1778- 
1830) were great essayists. Lord Jeffrey (1773-1850) and Syd- 
ney Smith (i 771-1845) were great contributors to the Edinburgh 
Review. Among historians were Henry Hallam (1778-1B59), 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR V. 381 

author of Consiitutional History of England, History of the Middle 
Ages, and Literature of Europe; John Lingard (i 771-185 i), author 
of a Roman Catholic History of England; Thomas Arnold of 
Rugby (i 795-1842), author of History of Rome and Lectures on 
Modern Histofy ; and William Mitford (1744-1827), author of a 
History of Greece. Douglas Jerrold (1803-185 7) was an English 
humorous writer. 

13. English Literature of the Victorian Age. — 

Poets. 

Alfred Tennyson (born 1809) — poet-laureate of England dur- 
ing the Victorian Age — was the author of The Princess, In Memo- 
riant, Idyls of the King, May Queen, Enoch Arden, and other poems. 
Other eminent English poets have been Robert Browning (born 
1812); his wife, Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1807-1861); 
Miss Jean Ingelow (born 1830); William Morris (born 1830); 
Algernon Charles Swinburne (born 1843); Charles Mackay 
(born 1814); Gerald Massey (born 1828); Bryan Waller Proc- 
ter (1790-1874); and his daughter, Adelaide A. Procter (1825- 
1864). 

The Four Great Novelists. 

Charles Dickens (181 2-1870) — the most eminent and popular 
of English novelists — wrote Nicholas Nickelby, David Copperfield, 
Pickwick Papers, and numerous other novels. 

William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863) — a great English 
novelist — wrote Vanity Fair, Pendennis, Henry Esmond, The Vir- 
ginians, The Newcomes, etc. 

Sir Edward George Bulwer-Lytton (1805-1873) — likewise a 
great English novelist — wrote Pelham, Eugene Aram, The Last 
Days of Pompeii, Rienzi, and other novels; also several dramas, as 
Richelieu and The Lady of Lyons. 

George Eliot (1820-1S80) — Mrs. Marian C. Lewes (formerly 
Evans), the greatest English female novelist — wrote Adam Bede, 
Romola, Silas Marner, Middlemarch, Daniel Deronda, and other 
novels. 

Other Novelists. 
Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Beaconsfield (1805-1881) — the great 
Tory statesman, of Hebrew descent — wrote Vivian Grey, Coningsbyy 
Sybil, Lothaire, Endymion, and other novels. Other famous nov- 
elists have been Rev. Charles Kinosley (1819-1875); Charles 
Reade (1814-1884); Anthony Trollope (born 1815); and 



382 MODERN HISTORY. 

Thomas Hughes (born 1823), member of Parliament, and author 
of School Days at Rugby and Tom Bfown at Oxford, Charlotte 
Bronte \_f?ron'-ta'\ (1816-1855) wrote Jane Eyre, Shirley, and 
Villette. 

Historians and Other Writers. 

Thomas Carlyle (i 795-1 881) — -a native of Scotland, but who 
lived most of his life in London — was one of the greatest of English 
writers ; and his great works were The French Revolution, Life of 
Frederick the Great, Hero Worship, Life of Cromwell, Sartor 
Resartus, and numerous Essays. 

Thomas Babington Macaulay(i8oo-i859) — the most illustrious 
and popular of the later English historians — was a native of Eng- 
land, but of Scotch descent ; and wrote a History of England, and 
other works, such as Essays, Lays of Ancient Rome, etc. 

Other historians of the Victorian Age have been George Grote 
(i 794-1871), a London banker, author of ^ Histoiy of Greece; 
CoNNOP Thirlwall ( 1 797-1 875), also author oi z. History of Greece ; 
Sir Archibald Alison (i 792-1867), author of a History of 
Europe; James Anthony Froude (born 1818), author of History 
of England; Henry Hart Milman (1791-1868), author of 
History of Christianity, History of Latin Christianity, etc.; Rev.' 
Charles Merivale (1808-1874), author oi History of the Romans, 
Conversion of the Roman Empire, Conversion of the Northern 
Nations, etc.; George Rawlinson (born 1815), author of Ancient 
History; Alexander William Kinglake (born 1802), author of 
History of the Invasion of the Crimea; and Miss Agnes Strick- 
land (born 1806), author of Queens of England, Queens of Scot- 
land^i Bachelor Rings of England, etc. 

John Ruskin (born 181 9) — the great art-critic — wrote Modern 
Painters, Seven Lamps of Architecture, Stones of Venice, etc. 

Max Muller (born 1823) — a native of Germany, but Professor 
of Philology in Oxford University — wrote Science of Language, 
Chips from a Germati Workshop, etc. 

Rev. Charles H. Spurgeon (born 1834) — the most popular 
preacher in England — has written several volumes of sermons. 

Among other writers have been Harriet Martineau \_?7iar' -te-no'] 
(1802-1876); her brother, James Martineau (born 1805), a Uni- 
tarian divine; Matthew Arnold (born 1822), son of the historian, 
Thomas Arnold of Rugby; and the Right Hon. William Ewart 
Gladstone (born 1809) — the great Liberal statesman — who wrote 
[uventus Mundi, Hotneric Studies, etc. 



NINE TEENTH CENTUR Y. 383 

14. American Literature. — 

Early Poets. 

Joseph Rodman Drake (1795-1820), of Connecticut — who died 
at 25 — was the author of The Atnerican Flag. 

Fitz-Greene Halleck (i 795-1867), of Connecticut — Drake's 
intimate friend — was the author of Marco Bozzaris. 

John Howard Payne (1792-185 2), of New York — a noted 
dramatist — wrote Home, Sweet Home. 

Edgar Allan Poe (1811-1849), of Baltimore — a brilliant but 
erratic genius — was the author of The Raven and The Bells. 

Judge Joseph Hopkinson (i 770-1843), of New Jersey, wrote 
Hail Columbia. 

Francis Scott Key (1779-1843) — a young Baltimore lawyer — 
wrote The Star Spangled Banner. ' 

Eat'ly Historians and Biographers. 

Dr. David Ramsay (i 749-1815) — an American historian and a 
physician — born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, but who lived 
most of his life in South Carolina — wrote History of South Carolina, 
History of the United States, Universal History, Life of Washington. 

William Wirt (i 772-1834) was a great Virginia lawyer, and 
author of The British Spy and Life of Patrick Henry. 

John Marshall (1775-1835) — also a great Virginia lawyer and 
Chief-Justice of the United States — wrote a Life of Washington. 

The Two Great Ornithologists. 

John James Audubon (1780-1851) — a native of Louisiana and a 
great American ornithologist — was the author of works entitled 
Birds of America and Quadrupeds of America. 

Alexander Wilson (i 766-1813) — a great Scotch-American 
ornithologist — wrote American Ornithology. 

The Two Great Writers on Law. 

Judge James Kent (1763-1847), of New York, wrote Commen- 
taries on American Law. 

Judge Joseph Story (i 779-1845), of Massachusetts, wrote Com- 
mentary on the Constitution of the United States, and other legal 
works. 

Great Divines. 
Timothy Dwight (i 752-181 7) — President of Yale College — was 
a great divine and writer. 



384 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

William Ellery Channing (i 780-1842), of Massachusetts, was 
a great Unitarian divine. 

The Tjvo Great Lexicographers. 

Noah Webster (i 758-1843), of Massachusetts, compiled an 
English Dictionary. 

Joseph Worcester [7voos' -fer'] (i 784-1865), of Massachusetts, 
also compiled an English Dictionary. 

The Great Orators. 

Daniel Webster (1782-185 2), of Massachusetts — the greatest of 
American orators — was one of the three great statesmen who for a 
quarter of a century adorned the United States Senate with their 
eloquence and greatness ; the other two being Henry Clay, of 
Kentucky (i 777-1852), and John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina 
(1782-1850). 

Edward Everett (1794-1S65), of Massachusetts, was the most 
polished of Americara orators, and a great scholar and statesman. 

Charles Sumner (1811-1S74) was a United States Senator from 
Massachusetts, and a great scholar, statesman, and champion of the 
rights of the colored race; whose fame was built on great orations, 
such as The True Grandeur of Nations, The Barbarism of Slavery, 
etc. 

Henry Ward Beecher (born 1S13) — the greatest of American 
pulpit orators and Congregational pastor in Brooklyn, and son of 
the famous Rev. Lyman Beecher (1775-1863) — is the author of 
several volumes of sermons and other works. 

Thomas De Witt Talmage (born 1832) is a popular Presbyterian 
preacher of Brooklyn, and an author. 

The Four Great Novelists. 

Washington Irving (i 783-1859), of New York — the most popu- 
lar American prose writer — wrote Knickerbocker, Bracebritige Hall, 
The Skctch-Book, Life of Goldsmith, Life of Columbus, Life of Wash- 
ington, The Alhambra, Conquest of Granada, etc. 

James Fenimore Cooper (i 789-1851), of Cooperstown, New 
York, wrote thirty-three novels. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne (i 804-1 864), of Concord, Massachu- 
setts, wrote Scarlet Letter, Marble Faun, and other novels. 

Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe (born 181 2) — sister of the Rev. 
Henry Ward Beecher, and the greatest American female novelist — 
wrote Uncle Tonics Cabin and other novels. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 385 

The Later Poets. 

William Cullen Bryant (i 794-1878), born in Massachusetts — 
editor of the New York Evening Post — was the greatest of American 
poets; and his first poem, Thanatopsis, he wrote at the age of 18, 
and his last, The Flood of Years, at the age of 82. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) — of Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, and the most popular of American poets — wrote 
Evangeline and many other popular poems, 

John Greenleaf Whittier (born 1808), of Massachusetts — the 
Quaker poet — is famous for his anti-slavery poems. 

James Russell Lowell (born 1819) — of Cambridge, Massachu- 
setts — is a great poet, essayist, and critic. 

Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes — (born 1809) — of Cambridge, 
Massachusetts — is a noted poet and prose writer. 

Bayard Taylor (182 5- 187 8), born in Chester county, Pennsyl- 
vania — a great traveller, poet, and prose writer — translated Goethe's 
Faust, and composed and recited the National ode for the 4th of 
July, 1876, at Philadelphia. 

Thomas Buchanan Read (1822-1872), born in Chester county,, 
Pennsylvania — poet and artist — was the author of Sheridan's Fide. 

John Godfrey Saxe (born 1816) — born in Vermont, a resident 
of Brooklyn — is a humorous poet. 

Alice and Phcebe Gary (1820-1871 and 1825-1871) — of New 
York city, born near Cincinnati — were sisters and the greatest> 
American female poets. 

Other poets have been George H. Boker, of Philadelphia (born 
1824); E. C. Stedman, a New York banker (born 1833); Thomas 
Bailey Aldrich, a native of Portsmouth, New Hampshire (born^ 
1836), a lyric poet and novelist; J. G. Holland, a poet and nov- 
elist, (1819-1883), editor oi Scribner' s Monthly; and Bret Hartb 
(born 1837), and Joaquin Miller (born 1841), both residents of 
New York city and both having led adventurous lives among the 
miners in California. 

The Later Historians and Biographers. 

William Hickling Prescott (i 796-1859), of Massachusetts 

grandson of Colonel William Prescott, of Bunker Hill fame — was 
the author of Ferdinand and Isabella, Conquest of Mexico, Conques. 
of Peru, Fobertson's Charles V., Philip IL, and Miscellanies. 

George Bancroft (born 1800) — born at Worcester, Massachu- 
setts — is the author of a standard History of the United States. 
25 



386 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



John Lothrop Motley (i 8 14-18 7 7), of Massachusetts, was the 
author oi Rise of the Dutch Republic, Histofy of the United Nether- 
lands, and John of Barneveldt. 

Richard .Hildreth (1807-1865), of Massachusetts, was the 
author of a History of the United States. 

Other historians have been Francis Parkman (born 1S23), of 
Massachusetts, author of The Conspiracy of Pontine, The Jesuits in 
America, The Discovety of the Great West, The Pioneers of France 
in the New World; Benson John Lossing (born 1813), of Pough- 
keepsie, New York, author oi Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution, 
History of the War of 1812, Pictorial History of the Civil War; 
and Rev. John S. C. Abbott (1805-1877), of Massachusetts, author 
o{ History of Napoleon Bonaparte, History of Napoleon HI., His- 
tory of the Civil War in America, and other works. Horace 
Greeley (iSii-i872),born in New Hampshire — founder and editor 
of The New Yor-k Tribune, and the prince of journalists — wrote 7%e 
American Conflict, Recollections of a Busy Life, etc. Henry 
Wilson (181 2-1875), of Massachusetts — Vice-President of the 
United States from 1873 ^^ 1875 — wrote a History of the Rise and 
Fall of the Slave Power in America. The most noted biographers 
have been Jared Sparks (i 794-1 866), editor of American Bi- 
ography, Life of Washington, Life of Fr-anklin, etc.; and James Par- 
ton (born 1822), author of Life of Jackson, Life of Franklin, Life 
of Jefferson, Famous Americans, People'' s Book of Biography, etc. 

Philosophical and Scientific Writers. 

' Theodore Parker (1810-1860) — a Rationalist divine of Boston 

— -was a great thinker and vigorous writer. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), of Massachusetts — "the 
Sage of Concord" and the most profound and original of American 
thinkers, and head of the " transcendental school of philosophy" — 
was the author of English Traits, Representative Men, and several 
volumes of Essays. 

Among scientific writers were John W. Draper (1811-1881) — 
Professor of Chemistry in the University of New York, and born 
in England — author of History of the Conflict between Science 

, and Religion, History of the Intellectual Development of Europe, 
History of the American Civil War, and many scientific works; 
Hon. George P. Marsh (born 1801), and Prof. W. D. Whitney 
(born 1827), of Yale College, authors of works on language; James 
McCosh (born 1811), of Princeton College, a metaphysician, whc 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 387 

came to America from Scotland in 1868; Francis Wayland (1796- 
1865), of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, author of 
Moral Science, Intellectual Philosophy, and Political Economy ; and 
Horace Mann (i 796-1859), the great Massachusetts educator. 

15. French Literature. — Champollion \shong-pol! -yo7{\ (1791- 
1832) was a great French Egyptologist, 

Poets. 

Chateaubriand \sha-to-bre-ong''\ (i 768-1848) — a famous French 
poet — wrote Genius of Christianity. 

Beranger \ba'rong-zhd~\ (1780-185 7) was a celebrated French 
lyric poet. 

Lam'artine (i 790-1 869) was a French poet and prose writer, 
orator, and politician. 

Historians. 

Sismondi (i 773-1842) — a famous French historian and political 
economist, a Swiss by birth-^wrote History of the Italian Republics 
and History of France. 

GuizoT [^/-z<7] (1787-1875) — a famous French statesman and 
historian — wrote History of Civilization in Europe and other works. 

Louis Adolphe Thiers \loo'-e a-dolf te-air''\ (i 797-1877) — a 
'great French statesman and historian — was the author of The French 
Revolution and The Consulate and the Empire. 

The brothers Thierry \te-a'-ree'\ (1795-1856 and 1797-1873) 
jwrote respectively History of the Norman Conquest and History of 
the Gauls. 

MiGNET {men-ya'~\ (born 1 796) wrote a History of the French 
'^Revolution. 

MiCHELET \_meesh-a-la'~\ (i 798-1874) wrote History of France and 
History of the French Revolution. 

Other Writers. 

Alexandre Dumas [du'-tnahl (1803-18 70) was a great French 
novelist. 

Ernest Renan \^re-non^'\ (born 1823) is a French critic and 
orientalist ; author of Life of Jesus and Saint Paul. 

Victor Hugo (born i8oe) is an illustrious French poet, drama- 
tist, novelist, historian, and politician ; whose best known works 
are Notre Dame, Les Miserables, and Ninety-three . 

De Tocqueville \de-tol^ -veel\ (1805-1856) — a French statesman 
and author — wrote Democracy in America and other works. 



^88 MODERN HIS TOR V. . ' 

16. Grerman Literature. — 

Humorist and Dramatist. 

RiCHTER (i 763-1 825) was a celebrated German author and 
humorist. 

Augustus VON Kotzebue (1761-1819) — a great German dram- 
atist — became a Russian subject, and was murdered while Russian 
Consul-General in Germany. 

Poets. 

LuDwiG Uhland (i 787-1862) was a renowned German lyric 
poet. 

Heinrich Heine [/«'-«<?A] (i 799-1856) was a famous German 
poet. 

Philologists. 

William von Humboldt (i 767-1835) — brother of Alexander von 
Humboldt — was a great Prussian statesman and philologist. 

Frederick and Augustus William Schlegel (i 772-1829 and 
1 767-1845), brothers, were great German philologists and anti- 
quarians and poets. 

Jacob and William Grimm (1785-1863 and 1 786-1859), broth- 
ers — illustrious German philologists and antiquarians — were the 
founders of the science of comparative philology ; and authors of 
Teutonic Grammar, Gennan Dictionary, and Household Tales. 

Historians. 

NiEBUHR (1776-1831) was a great German historian and lecturer 
on Ancient History. 

Neander (i 789-1850) was an eminent German church historian. 

RoTTECK (i 775-1840) — a German statesman and historian — wrote 
a History of the World. 

Heeren ( 1 760-1 842) was a great German historian. 

SCHLOSSER (i 776-1861) — also a noted German historian — wrote 
a History of the Eighteenth Century. 

Leopold von Ranke (born 1795) ^^ ^^ author of a Universal 
History. 

Mommsen (born 181 7) is the anthox o( z. History of Pome. 

CuRTius [kur' -she-US'] (born 181 4) wrote a History of Greece. 
Other Writers. 

Karl Ritter (i 779-1859) was a great German geographer. 

BuNSEN (i 791-1860) was a great Prussian writer and ambassador, 
author of God in History. 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 389 

Pestalozzi [J^^s-fa-M'-se'] (i 746-1827) was a great Swiss teacher 
and educational writer. 

Froebel (i 782-1852) was a German educator, founder of the 
Kindergarten system of education. 

17. Other European Literature. — 

Great Russian Poets, Novelists, and Historians. 
Pushkin (i 799-1837) — of negro descent — was the greatest of 
Russian poets. 

Lermontoff (1814-1841) was a famous Russian poet. 
Alexei Turgeneff ( 1 785-1845) was a Russian historian. 
Ivan Turgeneff (born 181 8) was a Russian novelist. 

Danish and Swedish Novelists . 

Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875) was a Danish novelist 
and story-writer. 

Fredrika Bremer (i 801-1866) was a great Swedish female 
novelist. 

18. Great Artists. — 

English Painters. 
Joseph M. W. Turner (i 775-1851) was a great historical and 
landscape painter. 

Sir Edwin Landseer (1802-1873) was a celebrated painter. 

American Painters. 

Gilbert Stuart (i 756-1828) was a famous American portrait 
painter. 

Washington Allston (i 779-1843) was a great American por- 
trait, landscape, and historical painter, and author. 

French Painters. 

Horace Vernet {tier-na'l (i 789-1863) was one of the greatest 
of French painters. 

Gustave Dore \do-7-d'\ {i'?>2)2r'^^^Z) was a distinguished French 
painter; famous for his illustrations of Dante's works, and of Don 
Quixote and The Wandering Jew . 

Other Artists. 

Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1805-18 74) was the most illustrious 
modern German painter; whose masterpieces are The Battle of the 
Huns and The Destruction of Jerusalem. 

Thorwaldsen (i 770-1844) was a celebrated Danish sculptor. 



39© MODERN HISTOR Y. 

19. Musical Composers and Singers. — 

German Musical Composers. 

Beethoven \^be-to' -ve7i\ (i 770-1827) was a great German musical 
composer; among whose oratorios is The Mount of Olives, and 
among whose operas is Fidelio. 

Weber (1786-1826) was a renowned German musical composer; 
whose greatest work is Der Freischiltz. 

Meyerbeer (i 794-1864) was a celebrated German musical com- 
poser ; whose greatest operas were Robert le Diable, The Huguenots, 
The Prophets, and V Africane. 

Mendelssohn (1809-1847) was a German-Jewish musical com- 
poser; whose chief works are his music for the Midsummer JVighf s 
Dream, and his sublime oratorios, St. Paul and Elijah. 

Wagner (1813-1883) was a famous German musical composer; 
whose great operas are Tannhauser, Lonhengrin, and Meistersinger. 

Italian Musical Composers. 

Rossini (i 792-1868) was noted for his operas, William Tell d^n^ 
The Barber of Seville. 

Donizetti (i 798-1848) wrote famous operas, as Lucrezia Borgia 
and Lucia di Lammermoor. 

Bellini (1802-1835) wrote popular operas, zs, Norma Somnam- 
bula, and The Puritans. 

Verdi (born 181 4) wrote noted operas, as // Trovatore and 
La Traviata. 

French Musical Composers. 
AuBER \o-bair''\ (i 782-1871) composed many operas. 
Berlioz [(^^/--/^-i?'] (i 803-1 869) also composed numerous operas. 
Gounod [goo' -no'] (born 18 18) is the greatest of French; musical 
composers. 

Russian Musical Composer. 
Rubinstein (born 1830) is a renowned Russian musical com- 
poser and pianist. 

Great Singers. 
Jenny Lind (born 1821) was a renowned Swedish singer, 
Christine Nilsson (born 1843) ^^ ^'^^ a noted Swedish singer. 
Parepa Rosa (1836-1874) was a distinguished English singer, 
Adelina Patti (born 1843) is a famous operatic singer, born in 
Madrid. 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 



391 



20. The Mormons. — A new sect has grown up in the United States 
— namely, the Mormons, or Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day 
Saints ; the circumstances of whose growth are among the most 
remarkable of modern times. This strange sect was founded in 
1827, by a young man named Joseph Smith, of Central New York, 
who claimed to have found a Bible whose leaves were of gold, near 
the village of Palmyra, where it was pretended to have lain hidden 
in the" earth for centuries, and whither its finder had been directed 
by a vision. This Bible — named the Book of Mormon — was said 
to contain an account of the ancient inhabitants of America, with 
a new gospel for mankind. Smith claimed to have received repeated 
divine revelations, and readily found followers. The Mormons 
emigrated from New York, and after forming a settlement at Kist- 
land, Ohio, in 1830, removed to Western Missouri in 1831, where 
they remained eight years, suffering the most violent persecutions 
from the inhabitants; and being frequently mobbed and finally 
driven away, they settled in Illinois in 1839, ^^^ founded the town 
of Nauvoo, on the Mississippi, where, to the number of 15,000, 
they remained eight years, suffering the same persecution and mob 
violence which they had endured in Missouri ; and Joseph Smith 
was assassinated by a mob in 1844, and Brigham Young became 
his successor as head of the Mormon Church and ruler of his peo- 
ple. In 1847 the Mormons emigrated to the present Territory of 
Utah, and founded the city of Salt Lake. They named their new 
country Deseret, or Land of the Honey-Bee. They called them- 
selves Latter-Day Saints, and all the rest of mankind Gentiles. 
They hav^ missionaries in other parts of the world and constantly 
make new proselytes, and the Mormon community now numbers 
■several hundred thousand. Their practice of polygamy has pre- 
vented the admission of Utah as a State, and the United States 
Congress has passed repeated enactments to suppress a practice so ab- 
horrent to Christian civilization. The Mormon Church is a power- 
ful hierarchy, and the head of the Church is an absolute despot as 
spiritual and temporal ruler. Brigham Young, who had seventeen 
wives, died in 1877, ^^'^ "^^^^ succeeded by John Taylor. In 1857 
the Mormons attempted to rebel against the United States Govern- 
ment, but submitted on the approach of United States troops sent 
by President Buchanan. 

/21. Keshub Chiinder Sen. — In India a new religious movement 
was inaugurated by Keshub Chunder Sen, who founded the Brahmo 
Somaf, a theistic society agreeing with the Unitarians of the Chris- 



392 



MODERN HISTORY. 



tian world, regarding Jesus as a prophet, and not as a divine per- 
sonage. In 1879 Keshub Chunder Sen claimed to be a prophet, 
or a reincarnation of the Divine Spirit, and tried to reconcile the 
Oriental faiths with Christianity, and organize a new religious sys- 
tem. He formed a preaching army, and secured in a short time 
hundreds of thousands of proselytes, who were inspired with great 
religious enthusiasm. Keshub Chunder Sen died in February, 1884. 



SUPPLEMENT. 



THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 

1. Objects of constitutions. — Peculiar character of the British Con- 
stitution. — Constitutions of government are formed among nations to define and 
restrict the powers of the sovereign, and to specify and secure the rights of the 
people. The British Constitution, unlike most other constitutions, is not a written 
instrument ; but consists of acts of Parliament, decisions of courts of law, and long- 
established usages and customs. It is therefore superior to other constitutions, 
from the fact that it cannot be broken by any legislation. It is very elastic, and 
can be expanded without changing its form or character. Thus England has 
the same form of government to-day which it had from its foundation; but the 
English people have for the last eight hundred years gradually acquired new lib- 
erties, so that England to-day is practically as free as the freest republic in the 
world, the sovereign being divested of all power in the government. 

2. The British Government a mixed one. — The people and the aris- 
tocracy. — The British Government consist-s of four systems united, affording the 
best example of a mixed form of government that the world has ever seen. The 
four systems thus united are monarchy, theocracy, aristocracy, and democracy ; so 
that the sovereign, the church, the nobility, and the people, all have a share in 
directing the destinies of the mighty British Empire. While the people of Eng- 
land have more civil and political liberty than any other in Europe, there is no 
aristocracy in the world s* wealthy and powerful as the English nobility. 

3. Origin of the British Constitution. — The Feudal System. — The 
British Constitution was formed very gradually, and its details are the results of 
long experience and are precisely adapted to the peculiar circumstances of the 
British nation. The government established in England by William the Con- 
queror was a feudal despotism ; the lands of the kingdom being assigned to his 
Norman favorites, and the Anglo-Saxon population became the vassals, or serfs, 
of their Norman lords. 

4. First step in the direction of liberty. — Magna Charta. — There were 
at first no written restrictions upon the king's authority over the barons, or nobles; 
but King Henry I., in order to secure his usurpation of the crown, granted some 
special privileges to the nobility and people of England. These privileges were 
flagrantly violated by King John, who was, however, on June 15, 1 215, compelled by 
the English barons to grant Magna Charta \_kar'-ta'\, or Great Charter of rights 
and liberties, which has ever since been regarded as the foundation of the free 
constitution of England. Thus the powers of the lords, and also the rights of the 
commons, received some recognition. The most important provisions of Magna 
Charta were the following : No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or dis- 

( 393 ) 



394 



SUPPLEMENT. 



possessed, or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed ; nor will we pass 
■upon him, nor commit him, but by the la-wful judgment of his peers, or by the 
law of the land. To no man 'will we sell, to none will we delay, to none will 
we deny right or justice. 

5. Liberation of the cities and towns. — Origin of the House of Com- 
mons. — The Ciusades having tended to break up the feudal system throughout 
England and every other part of Europe, by compelling the rich barons to sell 
their lands, a class of small landholders grew up, who looked to the crown for 
protection against the tyranny of the nobles, while the cities and towns received 
charters of incorporation and were released from feudal dependence on the great 
barons. When old Simon de Montfort took up arms to resist the capricious 
tyranny of King Henry HI., he summoned a Parliament to sanction his action; 
and, in order to gain popular support, he called upon the counties to elect knights 
of the shire, and requested the cities and boroughs to send deputies. Thus not 
only the lords, but also the commons of England, were represented. This was the 
beginning of the House of Commons, in which the people of England are repre- 
sented by deputies elected for that purpose, and which has always defended popu- 
lar rights against arbitrary encroachments on the part of the king and the lords. 

6. Growth of the royal power under the Tudor dynasty. — The commons 
were thenceforth courted by the king as a counterbalance to the power of the 
nobility, whose repeated encroachments on the royal prerogatives threatened the 
establishment of an unlimited baronial aristocracy; but the "Wars of the Roses" 
almost annihilated the ancient nobility of England ; and the authority of the king 
became almost absolute, and so continued throughout the reigns of the sovereigns 
of the Tudor dymasty, during the whole period of the sixteenth century. 

7. The struggle between the Stuarts and Parliament. — Petition of 
Right. — With the accession of the Stuart family to the English throne, the com- 
mons insisted upon the recognition of their rights, and thus began those fierce dis- 
putes between king and Parliament which distracted England during the whole 
period of the seventeenth century — the period that the Stuarts occupied the throne. 
In this contest the lords sided with the commons. King Charles I. was compelled, 
by the bold attitude of the commons, to grant the Petition of Right, which be- 
stowed on the English people many constitutional privileges. The contest between 
Parliament and Charles I. resulted in the king's execution and the temporary 
overthrow of the monarchy. 

8. The Habeas Corpus Act. — The Bill of Rights. — When monarchy was 
restored in 1660, the struggle betsi'een the king and the commons was renewed, 
with results beneficial to the cause of liberty. During the reign of Charles II., 
Parliament passed the celebrated Habeas Corpus Act, which protected freedom 
of person against arbitrary arrests; but the grandest result in the onward march 
of English freedom was achieved by the " Glorious Revolution of 1688," which 
hurled the tyrant James II. from the throne, when Parliament passed the cele- 
brated Bill of Rights, by which the king was shorn of his arbitrary powers, and 
his authority was reduced to a mere shadow, while the rights and liberties of the 
English people were secured on a new and permanent basis. The following were 
the most important provisions of the Bill of Rights: I, The king cannot suspend 
the laws or their execution. 2. He cannot levy money without the consent of 



THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 



395 



Parliament. 3. The subjects have a right to petition the crown. 4. A standing 
army cannot be kept in time of peace without the consent of Parliametit. 5. 
Elections and parliamentary debates must be free, and parliaments must be 
frequently assembled. 

9. The Reform Bill of 1832.— The Reform Bill of 1867.— After the Revo- 
lution of 1688 no change was made in the British Constitution until 1832, when 
Parliament passed the First Reform Bill, which extended the right of suffrage to 
Haifa million additional voters, and invested the middle classes of English society 
with the chief political power in the British Empire. The Reform Bill of 1832 
was to England a great, although a bloodless, political revolution. No further ad- 
vance in the direction of popular liberty was made in England until 1867, when 
Parliament passed the Second Reform Bill, which made the suffrage almost uni- 
versal, by diminishing the property qualification of voters for members of the House 
of Commons, and by re-arranging the Parliamentary constituencies of the kingdom. 

10. The legislative power in England. — The English crown. — The 
legislative power of England is vested in the king (or queen) and the two branches 
of Parliament — the lords and the commons. The crown of England is hereditary, 
but Parliament has the right to alter or regulate the succession. On the overthrow 
of James II. by the Revolution of 1688, Parliament passed the famous Act of Set- 
tlement, which extended the right of succession to the Protestant heirs of James I., 
on the impending failure of Protestant heirs of James II. The crown therefore 
passed to the House of Brunswick, or Hanover, the princess Sophia of Hanover 
having been a grand-daughter of James I. ; and George I., Elector of Hanover, the 
son of Sophia, ascended the British throne in 17 14, upon the extinction of the 
Protestant heirs of the House of Stuart. The present reigning family is the House 
of Brunswick, and holds the throne by right of the Parliamentary title of the 
princess Sophia. 

11. Duties and prerogatives of the sovereign. — His Ministers. — The 
duties of the English sovereign, as prescribed in the coronation oath, are : i. To 
govern according to law; 2. To execute judgment in mercy ; 3. To maintain the 
established religion. Those privileges of the monarch which belong to him in 
consequence of his high station are called the kingly prerogatives, and are of two 
kinds, direct and incidental. The chief of the direct prerogatives of the sovereign 
are : l. The power of making war and peace ; 2. Of sending and receiving ambas- 
sadors ; 3. Of pardoning offences; 4. Of conferring honors and titles of dignity; 
5. Of appointing judges and subordinate magistrates ; 6. Of giving or revoking 
commissions in the army or navy ; 7. Of rejecting bills proffered to him by the 
two Houses of Parliament. The sovereign is the head of the national church, and 
appoints to vacant bishoprics and other ecclesiastical dignities. But the king, or 
queen, cannot exercise his, or her, prerogatives directly and personally ; but only 
through ministers, who are responsible to the British nation as represented in the 
two Houses of Parliament. Hence the maxim of English law, " the king can do 
no wrong ;" his Ministers alone being responsible. When, therefore, the measures 
of a Ministry are disapproved by a mnjority of the House of Commons, the Minis- 
ters in power must either resign, or dissolve the House of Commons and order 
the election of a new House of Commons to ascertain the sense of the nation ; 
and if a majority is returned in favor of the Ministers' policy, the Ministry remains 



396 SUPPLEMENT. 

in power; but if a majority is returned disapproving their course, a change of Min- 
istry takes place. The Ministers are taken from the members of the two Houses 
of Parliament. The head of the Ministry is styled the Prime Minister, the 
Premier, or the First Lord of the Treasury. The other members of the Minis- 
try are the Lord Chancellor, the Lord President of the Council, the Lord Privy 
Seal, the Home Secretary, the Foreign Secretary, the Colonial Secretary, the 
Secretary for India, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Secretary of War, the 
Chaiicellor of the Exchequer, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Postmaster- 
General, the President of the Board of Trade, the President of the Poor Law 
Board, and the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 

12. Incidental prerogatives. — The principal incidental prerogatives of the 
monarch are as follows: i. No costs can be recovered against him; 2. His debt 
shall be preferred before that of a subject ; 3. No suit or action can be brought 
against him, but any person having a claim in point of property on the king must 
petition him in chancery. There are also certain privileges conceded to the 
royal family. The queen retains her title and dignity, even after her husband's 
death; and she has the right to buy and sell in her own name, and to remove any 
suit at law in which she is a party to any court she chooses, without any of the 
common legal formalities. The king's eldest son is by birth Prince of IVales, 
and by creation Duke of Cornwall and Earl of Chester. All the monarch's chil- 
dren, and those of the Prince of Wales, receive the title of Royal Highness. 

13. House of Lords. — The House of Lords, or Upper House of Parliament, 
consists: i. Oi Lords Temporal, ot the princes of the blood royal and the heredi- 
tary nobles — such as dukes, marquises, earls or counts, viscounts, and barons — 
•who are members by right of birth ; 2. Of Lords Spiritual, or the Archbishops of 
Canterbury and York, and the other bishops of the Church of England, who are 
members by virtue of their offices. The Scotch representative peers sit only for 
one Parliament ; the Irish representative peers sit for life. A peer may vote by 
proxy; but each peer can only hold the proxy for one absent peer. The House 
of Lords can alone originate any bills that affect the rights or privileges of the 
peerage, and the Commons are not allowed to make any changes in them. Peers 
can only be tried by the House of Lords, and this House of Parliament constitutes 
the court in which officers of state are tried on impeachment by the House of 
Commons. The House of Lords is also the last court of appeal from inferior 
jurisdictions. Each peer may enter his protest on the journals of the houses when 
a vote passes contrary to his sentiments, and assign the reasons for his dissent in 
writing. When sitting in judgment his vote is given "on his honor." The same 
form is observed in answers on bills in chancery, but in civil and criminal cases he 
must be under oath. 

14. House of Commons. — The House of Commons, or Lower House of 
Parliament, consists of members chosen by the counties, cities, boroughs, and uni- 
versities of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. The county members, usually 
styled knights of the shire, and borough members must possess real estate of a 
specified yearly value ; but the sons of peers and university members need not 
possess these qualifications. Aliens, clergymen, judges, returning officers in the 
respective jurisdictions, officers of the excise and the like, those who hold pensions 
of a limited time, contractors with the Government, and others exposed to outside 



THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION: 



397 



influences, are not eligible to seats in Parliament. The House of Commons has 
the sole power of impeachment. The members of Parliament, with the exception 
of the chairmen of several committees, receive no salaries. 

15. Qualifications of voters for members of the House of Commons. — 

By the Reform Bill of 1832, the riglit of voting for members of the House of Com 
mons was given to leaseholders m couniies seized on lands or tenements worth ten 
pounds a year, to tenants at will, farming lands at fifty pounds a year, and to hold- 
ers in fee simple of lands or tenements of the yearly value of forty shillings. In 
cities and boroughs the right of voting is given to resident landholders whose tene- 
ments are worth an annual rental of ten pounds, but the rights of freemen in the 
old constituencies are preserved for life. By the Reform Bill of 1867 all these 
property qualifications were reduced, and the elective franchise was extended to 
several hundred thousand additional voters. By the Ballot Act of 1872 members 
of Parliament are elected by secret ballot, instead of by open voting, as before. 
By an express act of Parliament, no member of the House of Commons can be ap- 
pointed to any office by the crown without resigning his seat ; and no person 
elected to Parliament by any constituency can refuse to serve in the capacity to 
which he was chosen, even against his own will, except by formally resigning his 
seat in Parliament. 

16. Legislation. — Speech from the throne. — Prorogation ■ and disso- 
lution. — The House of Commons elects its own presiding officer, called the 
Speaker. Bills, in order to become laws, must pass three readings ; and after be- 
ing passed by both Houses of Parliament, must receive the royal assent before 
they can become laws. Every session of Parliament is opened by a speech from 
the throne to both Houses, the Ministers giving an account of the state of public 
affairs, and recommending to the consideration of Parliament certain measures of 
public policy. The act of proroguing Parliament, which means adjourning it for 
an indefinite time, is vested in the crown; but Parliament may adjourn its sittings 
to the next or to any future day. The power of dissolving Parliament is also vested 
in the crown, through its Ministers. 

17. The English Church. — The established Church — known as the Church 
of England, the Anglican Church, or the Protestant Episcopal Church, as estab- 
lished during the reigns of Henry VHI., Edward VI., and Elizabeth — is undei 
Government control. The sovereign is the head of the Church. The first of the 
ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Church of England is the Archbishop of Canterbury, 
or the Primate, and next to him is the Archbishop of York. There are twenty- 
four other Bishops of the established Church. The two Archbishops and the 
twenty-four other Bishops are members of the House of Lords, as before noticed. 

18. Administration of justice. — The king (or queen) is the source of exe- 
cutive justice; but law, whether criminal or civil, is administered by the Judges, 
who, excepting the Lord Chancellor, hold their offices during good behavior. 
The judiciary department in England and Ireland consists of the Courts of Chan- 
cery, King's (or Queen's) Bench, Cojjimon Pleas, and Exchequer ; in Scotland 
of the Court of Sessions and the High Court of Justiciary. In the rural dis- 
tricts Circuit Courts are held twice a year by itinerant justices. The House of 
Lords is the highest law court in the British Empire. A Supreme Court was 
recently established for appealed cases previously decided by the House of 



3^8 SUPPLEMENT. 

Lords. The Courts of King's (or Queen's) Bench are each presided over by a 
Lord Chief Justice. Common law is based on custom, or precedents established 
by decisions of the Courts. Statute law consists of Acts of Parliament. The 
Law of Equity is administered by the Lord Chancellor, in cases not covered by 
Statute law, and where justice can not be secured by the Common law. No man 
can be tried for any offence until a grand jury has decided that there is reasonable 
ground for the accusation ; in which case the accused is handed for trial to a court 
of law, before a jury of twelve of his equals, and the verdict of that jury is final. 
No person can be tried twice for the same offence; and when a person is con- 
victed by a jury there is no appeal but to the mercy of the crown. The civil and 
common law courts are open to every suitor, and justice is freely administered to 
all, of whatever rank or station. Treason against the Government consists in 
insurrection against its authority or in adherence to its enemies. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

PREAMBLE. 

Objects. — We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more per- 
fect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common 
defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to our- 
selves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United 
States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 
LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT, 

SECTION I. 

Legislative powers. — All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested 
in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
Representatives. 

SECTION II. 

House of Representatives. — ist Clause. — The House of Representatives 
shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the sev- 
eral States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for 
electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

Qualifications of Representatives. — 2d Clause. — No person shall be a 
Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and 
been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Apportionment of Representatives. — jd Clause. — Representatives and 
direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included 
within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be deter- 
mined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to 
service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all 
other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the 
first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



399 



term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of 
Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State 
shall have at least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, 
the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts 
eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York 
six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia 
ten, North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

Vacancies, how filled. — 4th Clause. — Wlien vacancies happen in the repre- 
sentation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of elec- 
tion to fill such vacancies. 

Speaker, howr appointed. — 3th Clause. — The House of Representatives 
shall choose their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of im- 
peachment. 

SECTION III. 

United States Senate. — ist Clause. — The Senate of the United States shall 
be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, 
for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. 

Classification of Senators. — 2d Clause. — Immediately after they shall be 
assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as 
may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be 
vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration 
of the fourth year, and of the the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so 
that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by 
resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the 
executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the 
Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

Qualification of Senators. — 3d Clause. — No person shall be a Senator who 
shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of 
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State 
for which he shall be chosen. 

President of the Senate. — 4th Clause. — The Vice-President of the United 
States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be 
equally divided. 

Other officers of the Senate. — ^th Clause. — The Senate shall choose their 
other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-Presi- 
dent, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 

The Senate a court for trial of impeachments. — 6tk Clause. — The 
Senate have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that pur- 
pose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United 
States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted 
without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 

Judgment in case of conviction. — "jth Clause. — Judgment in cases of im- 
peachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualifica- 
tion to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States; 
but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, 
trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. 



400 



SUPPLEMENT. 



SECTION IV. 

Elections of Senators and Representatives. — ist Clause. — The times, 
places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be 
prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any 
time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing 
Senators. 

Meeting of Congress. — 2d Clause. — The Congress shall assemble at least 
once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, 
unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 

SECTION V. 

Organization of Congress. — ist Clause. — Each house shall be the judge ot 
the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of 
each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn 
from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 
members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each house may provide. 

Rules of proceeding. — 2d Clause. — Each house may determine the rules ot 
its own proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the 
concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

Journal of Congress. — ;^d Clause. — Each house shall keep a Journal of its 
proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may 
in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of 
either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be 
entered on the journal. 

Adjournment of Congress. — 4th Clause. — Neither house, during the session 
of Congrtss, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three 
days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

SECTION VI. 

Compensation and privileges of members. — ist Clause. — The Senators 
and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascer- 
tained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shaU in 
all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from 
arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in 
going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either 
house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

Plurality of offices prohibited. — 2d Clause. — No Senator or Representa- 
tive shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil 
office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or 
the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no 
person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either 
house during his continuance in office. 

SECTION VII. 

Bills, how originated. — ist Clause. — All bills for raising revenue shall ori- 
ginate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur 
with amedments as on other bills. 

How bills become laws. — 2d Clause. — Every bill which shall have passed 
the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



401 



presented to the President of the United States. If he approve he shall sign it, 
but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall 
have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and pro- 
ceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall 
agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other 
house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-thirds 
of that house, it shall become a law. But, in all such cases, the votes of both 
houses shall be determined by yeas and nays; and the names of the persons 
voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house 
respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days 
(Sundays excepted) after it shall have been pretented to him, the same shall be a 
law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjourn- 
ment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Approval and veto powers of the President. — jd Clause. — Every order, 
resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be pre- 
sented to the President of the United States ; and, before the same shall take 
effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed 
by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules 
and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

SECTION VIII. 

Powers vested in Congress. — ist Clause. — The Congress shall have power 
to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide 
for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, 
imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 

2d Clause. — To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 
^d Clause. — To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian tribes; 

4Jh Clause. — To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws 
on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

£th Clause. — To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and ot foreign coin, 
and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

6th Clause. — To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States; 

"jth Clause. — To establish post-offices and post-roads; 

8th Clause. — To promote the progress of science and the useful arts, by se- 
curing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries ; 

gth Clause. — To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

loth Cla^^se. — To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
high seas, and offences against the law of nations ; 

nth Clause. — To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

I2th Clause. — To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to 
that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

13th Clause. — To provide and maintain a navy; 
26 



402 SUPPLEMENT. 

14th Clause. — To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces ; 

i£th Clause. — To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; 

i6th Clause. — To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, 
and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the 
United States, reserving to the States respectively, the appointment of the officers, 
and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by 
Congress ; 

ijth Clause. — To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over 
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the Government of 
the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the 
consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection 
efforts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; — And 

i8th Clause. — To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or 
officer thereof. 

SECTION IX. 

Immigrants, how admitted. — ist Clause. — The migration or importation 
of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, 
shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight 
hundred aind eight, but a tax or duty may I'c imposed on such importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

Habeas Corpus. — 2d Clause. — The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus 
shall not be suspended, unless, when in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public 
safety may require it. 

Attainder. — 3d Clause. — No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be 
fxissed. 

Direct taxes. — 4th Clause. — No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, 
unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be 
taken. 

Export duties. — 5tk Clause. — No tax or duty shall be laid on articles ex- 
ported from any State. 

Regulations regarding duties. — 6th Clattse. — No preference shall be given 
by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of 
another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, 
or pay duties in another. 

Money, how drawn. — ylh Clattse. — No money shall be drawn from the 
treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular state- 
ment and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be 
published from time to time. 

Titles of nobility prohibited. — 8lh Clause. — No title of nobility shall be 
granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust 
under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept ot any present. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



403 



emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign 
state. 

SECTION X. 
Powers of States defined. — ist Clause. — No State shall enter into any 
treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin 
money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in 
payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing 
the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

2d Clause. — No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any im- 
post or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for 
executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid 
by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the 
United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of 
the Congress. 

jd Clause. — No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any duty 
on tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agree- 
ment or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, 
unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit oi delay. 

ARTICLE II. 
EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 

SECTION I. 

Executive power, in whom vested. — ist Clause, — The executive power 
shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold 
his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice President, 
chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 

Presidential Electors. — 2d Clause. — Each State shall appoint, in such man- 
ner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of Electors, equal to the 
whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be en- 
titled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding any 
office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. 

President and Vice-President, how elected. — \jd Clause. — The Electors 
shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, one of 
whom at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And 
they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for 
each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The 
President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The 
person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and, if there be more 
than one who have such majority and have an equal number of votes, then the 
House of Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for 
President ; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the 
list, the said house shall, in like manner, choose the President. But, in choosing 
the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each 



404 



SUPPLEMENT. 



State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or 
members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be 
necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the per- 
son having the greatest number of votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-Presi 
dent. But, if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate 
shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-President.]* 

Time of choosing Electors. — 4th Clause. — The Congress may determine 
the time of choosing the Electors, and the day on which they shall give their 
votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

Qualifications of the President. — ^th Clause. — No person except a natural 
born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this 
Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person 
be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, 
and been fourteen years resident within the United States. 

Resort in case of disability. — 6ih Clause. — In case of the removal of the 
President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the 
powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, 
and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, 
or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall 
then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be 
removed, or a President shall be elected. 

Salary of the President. — ytk Clause. — The President shall, at stated times, 
receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor 
diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall 
not receive, within that period, any other emolument from the United States, or 
any of them. 

Oath of office. — 8tk Clause. — Before he enter on the execution of his office, 
he shall take the following oath or affirmation. — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) 
that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, 
to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the 
United States.'' 

SECTION II. 

Duties of the President. — ist Clause.— The President shall be commander- 
in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require 
the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive depart- 
ments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he 
shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United 
States, except in cases of impeachment. 

His power to make treaties, appoint ambassadors, judges, etc. — 
2</ Clause. — He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and 
he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall 
appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme 

* This clause enclosed within brackets has been annulled, the Twelfth Amendment being sub- 
stituted in its stead. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 405 

Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not 
herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the 
Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think 
proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of depart- 
ments. 

May fill vacancies. — 3d Clause. — The President shall have power to fill up 
all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com- 
missions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

SECTION III. 

His power to convene Congress. — He shall, from time to time, give to the 
Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consider- 
ation such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on ex- 
traordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and, in case of dis- 
agreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may 
adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors 
and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, 
and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

SECTION IV. 

How officers may be removed. — The President, Vice-President, and all 
civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment 
for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. 
JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 

SECTION I. 

Judicial power, how vested. — The judicial power of the United States shall 
be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and 
inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior ; and shall, at stated 
times, receive, for their services, a compensation which shall not be diminished 
during their continuance in office. 

SECTION II. 

To what cases it extends. — ist Clause. — The judicial power shall extend to 
all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; — to all 
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; — to all cases of 
admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; — to controversies to which the United States 
shall be a party ; — to controversies between two or more States ; — between a State 
and citizens of another State; — between citizens of different States; — between citi- 
zens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States; — and 
between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 

Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. — 2d Clause. — In all cases affecting 
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall 
be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other 
cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both 



4o6 SUPPLEMENT. 

as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Con- 
gress shall make. 

Rules respecting trials. — 3d Clause. — The trial of all crimes, except in 
cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the Slate 
where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed 
within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by 
law have directed. 

SECTION III. 

Treason defined. — ist Clause. — Treason against the United States shall con- 
sist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
aid and comfort. 

Conviction for treason. — 2d Clause. — No person shall be convicted of 
treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on con- 
fession in open court. 

How punished. — 3d Clause. — The Congress shall have power to declare the 
punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, 
or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. 

MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS. 

SECTION I. 

Rights of States to public faith defined. — Full faith and credit shall be 
given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every 
other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in 
which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

SECTION II. 

Privileges of citizens. — ist Clause. — The citizens of each State shall be 
entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens of the several States. 

Executive requisition. — 2d Clause. — A person charged in any State with 
treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice and be found in another 
State, shall, on the demand of the executive authority of the State from which he 
fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

Law regarding fugitive slaves. — 3d Clause. — No person held to service 
or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in con- 
sequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or 
labor, but shall be delivered up, on claim of the party to whom such service or 
labor may due. 

SECTION III. 

New States, how formed and admitted. — ist Clause. — New States may 
be admitted, by the Congress, into this Union; but no new State shall be formed 
or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by 
the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the 
Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. 

Power of Congress over public lands. — 2d Clause. — The Congress shall 
have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STA TES. 



407 



the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this 
Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, 
or of any particular State. 

SECTION. IV. 

Republican government guaranteed. — The United States shall guarantee 
to every State in this Union a republican form of government; and shall protect 
each of them against invasion, and, on application of the Legislature, or of the 
Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

Constitution, how to be amended. — The Congress, whenever two-thirds of 
both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, 
or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall 
call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid, 
to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legis- 
latures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths 
thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Con- 
gress ; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one 
thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth 
clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its con- 
sent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

Validity of debts recognized. — ist Clause. — All debts contracted and en- 
gagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid 
against the United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 

Supreme Law of the Land defined. — 2d Clause. — This Constitution, and the 
laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all 
treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, 
shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound 
thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not- 
withstanding. 

Oath, of whom required, and for what. — jd Clause. — The Senators and 
Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legis- 
latures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the 
several States, shall be bound by oath, or affirmation, to support this Constitution; 
but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public 
trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

Ratification. — The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be suffi- 
cient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the 
same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seven 
teenth day of September, in the year of our Lord -one thousand seven hundred 



4oS SUPPLEMENT. 

and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the 
twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
President, and Deputy from Virginia. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

John Langdon, 
Nicholas Gilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel Gorham, 
Rufus King. 

CONNECTICUT. 

William Samuel Johnson, 
Roger Sherman. 

NEW YORK. 
Alexander Hamilton. 

NEW JERSEY. 

William Livingston, 
David Brearley, 
William Paterson, 
Jonathan Dayton. 

PENNSYLVANU. 
Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
Robert Morris, 
Thomas Clymer, 
Thomas Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersoll, 
James Wilson, 
Gouverneur Morris. 



DELAWARE. 

George Read, 
Gunning Bedford, Jr., 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett, 
Jacob Broom. 

MARYLAND. 

James McHenry, 
Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, 
Daniel Carroll. 
VIRGINIA. 
John Blair, 
James Madison, Jr., 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

William Blount, 
Richard Dobbs Spraight, 
Hugh Williamson. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

John Rutledge, 
Charles C. Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 

GEORGIA. 

William Few, 
Abraham Baldwin. 
Attest : William Jackson, Secretary. 



AMENDMENTS. 

To THE Constitution of the United States, Ratified According to the 
Provisions of the Fifth Article of the Foregoing Constitution. * 

ARTICLE I. 
Freedom in religion and speech, and of the press. — Congress shall make 
no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise 
thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the 
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for redress of 
grievances. 

ARTICLE 11. 

Militia. — A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, 
the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

*The first ten Articles of Amendments were ratified in 1791; the nth in 179S; the 12th in 
1804 ; the 13th in 1865 ; the 14th in i868 ; and the 15th in 1870. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



409 



ARTICLE III. 
Soldiers. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, 
without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- 
scribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Search-warrants. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not 
be violated ; and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by 
oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the 
persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V. 

Capital crimes. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in 
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service in 
time of war and public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same 
offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any 
criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or 
property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for pub- 
lic use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. 
Trial by jury. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right 
to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein 
the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously 
ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; 
to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for 
obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his de- 
fense. 

ARTICLE VII. 
Suits at common law. — In suits at common law, where the value in con- 
troversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, 
and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined, in any court of the 
United States, than according to the rules of common law. 

ARTICLE VIII. 
Bail. — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 
Certain rights defined. — The enumeration, in the 'Constitution, of certam 
rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X. 
Rights reserved. — The powers not delegated to the United States by the 
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 



4IO SUPPLEMENT. 

ARTICLE XI. 
Judicial power limited. — The judicial power of the United States shall not 
be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
against one of the United States, by citizens of another State, or by citizens or 
subjects of any foreign state. 

ARTICLE XII. 

Amendment respecting the election of President and Vice-President. 
— The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for Presi- 
dent and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for 
as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and 
they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all per- 
sons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists 
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the Government of 
the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; — the President of the 
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open 
all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; — the person having the 
greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be 
a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and, if no person have 
such majority, then, from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding 
three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives 
shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, 
the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one 
vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two- 
thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the 
right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next 
following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the 
death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the 
greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and, if no per- 
son have a majority, then, from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds 
of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of 
President, shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII. 

SECTION I. 

Slavery prohibited. — Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as 
a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

SECTION II. 

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 411 

ARTICLE XIV. 

SECTION I. 

Citizens and their rights. — All persons born or naturalized in the United 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United Stales, 
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any laiv 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; 
nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due 
process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection 
of the laws. 

SECTION II. 

Adjustment of representation to the elective franchise. — Representatives 
shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective num- 
bers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not 
taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of Electors for 
President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, 
the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature 
thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one 
years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for 
participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall 
be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear 
to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

SECTION III. 
Disabling conditions. — No person shall be a Senator or Representative in 
Congress, or Elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or 
military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously 
taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or 
as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any 
State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in 
insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
thereof. But Congress, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, may remove such 
disability. 

SECTION IV. 

Treatment of public debts. — The validity of the public debt of the United 
States, including debts incurred for the payment of pensions and bounties for 
services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But 
neither the United States, nor any State, shall assume, or pay any debt or obli- 
gation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or 
any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obliga- 
tions, and claims, shall be held illegal and void. 

SECTION V. 

Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions 
of this article. 

ARTICLE XV. 

SECTION I. 

Right to vote secured. — The right of the citizens of the United States to vote 



412 



SUPPLEMENT. 



jhall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account 
ot race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

SECTION II. 

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

In Congress, July 4, 1776. 
The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America. 

1. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to 
dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, 
among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws 
of nature, and of nature's God, entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of 
mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the 
separation. 

2. We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all men are created equal; 
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that 
among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these 
rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the 
consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes de- 
structive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to 
institute a new government, laying its foundations on such principles, and organ- 
izing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to eflect their 
safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long 
established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, 
all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils 
are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are 
accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invari- 
ably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, 
it is their right, it is their duty, to throw oft' such government, and to provide new 
guards for their future security. Such has been tlie patient sufferance of these 
colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former 
systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a 
history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the estab- 
lishment of an absolute tyranny over these .States. To prove this, let facts be 
submitted to a candid world. 

3. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the 
public good. 

4. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im- 
portance, unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be obtained ; 
and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

5. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of 
people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the 
Legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

6. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 413 

and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of 
fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

7. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly 
firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

8. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be 
elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned 
to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the meantime, 
exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without, and convulsions within. 

9. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that pur- 
pose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass 
others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new ap- 
propriations of lands. 

10. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to 
laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

11. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

12. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of offi- 
cers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

13. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the 
consent of our Legislatures. 

14. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the 
♦civil fKDwer. 

15. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our 
constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of 
pretended legislation : 

16. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 

17. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders 
which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; 

18. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 

19. For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 

20. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefit of trial by jury ; 

21. For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences ; 

22. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, 
establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as 
to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same abso- 
lute rule into these colonies ; 

23. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and alter 
ing, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 

24. For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with 
power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever; 

25. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, 
and waging war against us. 

26. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and de- 
stroyed the lives of our people. 

27. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, to com- 
plete the work of death, desolation, and tyranny already begun, with circumstances 
of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally 
unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 



414 SUPPLEMENT. 

28. He has constrained our fellow-citizens taken captive on the high seas, to 
bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and 
brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

29. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to 
bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose 
known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and 
conditions. 

30. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the 
most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated 
injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define 
a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

31. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend 
an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circum- 
stances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native 
justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of a common 
kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our con- 
nections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice 
and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which de- 
nounces our separation, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies 
in war — in peace, friends. 

32. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in • 
general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the 
rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people 
of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and 
of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved from all 
allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and 
the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free 
and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, con- 
tract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which inde- 
pendent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a 
firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each 
other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. CONNECTICUT. 

Josiah Bartlett, Roger Sherman, 

William Whipple, Samuel Huntingdon, 

Matthew Thornton. William Williams, 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY Oliver Wolcott. 
Samuel Adams, NEW YORK. 

John Adams, William Floyd, 

Robert Treat Paine, Philip Livingston, 

Elbridge Gerry.. Francis Lewis, 

RHODE ISLAND. Lewis Morris. 
Stephen Hopkins, new jersey. 

William EUery, Richard Stockton, 



THE PROCLAMATION OF EMANCIPATION. 



415 



John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abraham Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benjamin FrankHn, 
John Morton, 
George Clymer, 
James Smith, 
George Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
George Ross. 

DELAWARE. 
Csesar Rodney, 
George Read, 
Thomas M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 
Samuel Chase, 
William Paca, 
Thomas Stone, 



Charles Carroll, of CarroIIton. 

VIRGINIA. 

George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, 
Thomas Nelson, Jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

William Hooper. 
Joseph Hewes. 
John Penn. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 
Edward Rutledge, 
Thomas Heyward, Jr., 
Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
Arthur Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 

Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
George Walton. 



THE PROCLAMATION OF EMANCIPATION. 

A PROCLAMATION, 

Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was issued by the 
President of the United States, containing, among other things, the following, 
to wit : 

" That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
hundred and sixty-three, all persons heldj as slaves within any State or designated 
parts of a Slate, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United 
States, shall be then, ttienceforward, and forever free ; and the executive govern- 
ment of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will 
recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to 
repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual 
freedom. 

" That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, 
designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof re- 
spectively shall then be in rebellion against the United States ; and the fact that 
any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith represented in 
the Congress of the United States, by members chosen thereto at elections wherein 
a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the 
absence of strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that 



4 1 6 -S UP PL EMENT. 

such State, and the people thereof, are not then in rebellion against the United 
States. 

" Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue 
of the power in me vested as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of 
the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and gov- 
vernment of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for sup- 
pressing said rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my purpose 
so to do, publicly proclaimed for the full period of one hundred days, from the day 
first above mentioned, order and designate as the States and parts of States 
wherein the people thereof respectively are this day in rebellion against the United 
States, to wit : 

"Arkansas, Texas, Louisana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, 
Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, 
Lafourche, Ste. Marie, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New 
Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, 
and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and 
also the counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, 
Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and 
which excepted parts are for the present left precisely as if this proclamation 
were not issued. 

"And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and de- 
clare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of 
States, are and henceforward shall be free; and that the executive government 
of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will 
recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. 

" And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain from 
all violence, unless in necessary self defence ; and I recommend to them that, in 
all cases when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. 

" And I further declare and make known that such persons, of suitable condi- 
tion, will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison 
forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said 
service. 

" And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the 
Constitution upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of man- 
kind, and the gracious favor of Almighty God. 

" In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of 
the United .States to be affixed. 

" Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in the year of our 
P , Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the indepen- 
dence of the United States the eighty-seventh. 

(Signed) "ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 

" By the President : 

"William H. Seward, Secretary of State." 



HISTORIC LEGEN-DS. 417 

HISTORIC LEGENDS. 

We will now proceed to give the legends of history — stories which were formerly 
believed to be true, but which modern scholars, historians, and antiquarians, 
have demonstrated -to be pure fables. 

The old Grecian and Roman legends are so remarkable and extravagant that 
their falsity is at once apparent; as the stories of the circumstances which they 
narrate are so entirely out of the natural order of things that their occurrence could 
not have been possible. The most remarkable legend of the Middle Ages is 
that of William Tell and Gesler in Swiss history; and the most famous of modern 
legends is that of Captain John Smith and Pocahontas in our own history. We 
have omitted these legends from the historic text in order to keep the narrative 
unbroken. 

GRECIAN LEGENDS. 

Inachus, Cecrops, Lelex, Cadmus, Danaus, and Pelops. — The oldest 
city in Greece was Argos, the capital of Argolis, which was founded in the year 
1856 B. C, by Inachus, a Phoenician. In the year 1556 B.C. — three hundred 
years after the founding of Argos — Cecrops, an Egyptian, founded in Attica a city 
which he named Athens, in honor of the Goddess Athena. The Egyptian, Lelex> 
is said to have founded Sparta, B. C. 1520. The Phoenician, Cadmus, is said to 
have founded Thebes and its famous citadel, the Cadmea, B. C. 1493- The 
Egyptian, Danaus, is said to have arrived at Argos B. C. 1485, with fifty daugh- 
ters, and to have taught the people to dig wells. The Phrygian prince, Pelops, is 
said to have landed on the peninsula of Southern Greece, named in his honor 
Peloponnesus, or Island of Pelops, about 1350 B. C. 

Hercules. — A fabulous personage of Greece's Heroic Age was Hercules \_Her'- 
ku-kezl, celebrated for his wonderful feats of strength. He was reputed to be the 
son of Zeus and Alcmena, the wife of Amphitryon, king of Thebes. While yet. 
an infant in his cradle, Hercules is said to have strangled two huge serpents which 
the goddess Hera had sent to destroy hmi. The twelve labors which Hera ex- 
acted of Hercules were the following: i. He killed the Nemean lion and wore 
his skin in the remainder of his exploits. 2. He slew the Lernean hydra, whose 
heads multiplied sevenfold on being severed. 3. He brought to Eurystheus upon 
his shoulders the Erymanthean boar. 4. He subdued the golden-horned and 
brazen-hoofed stag of Diana. 5. He destroyed with his arrows the foul Stym- 
phalian birds. 6. He cleansed the Augean stables. 7. He tamed the furious bull 
of Crete. 8. He gave Diomedes to be devoured by his own horses. 9. He van- 
quished the Amazons. 10. He killed the three-headed Geryon, king of Gades 
[now Cadiz], in Spain, and brought his oxen to Greece. 11. He killed the hun- 
dred-headed dragon of the Hesperides, and obtained the golden apples of his 
garden. 12. He dragged the three-headed dog Cerberus from the gate of Hades, 
into which he descended twice. Hercules killed the centaur Nessus with an arrow 
poisoned with the blood of the Lernean hydra, because the centaur had insulted 
the hero's wife, Dejanira. The dying centaur persuaded Dejanira to give a tunic 
dipped in his blood to her husband in reconciliation; but as soon as Hercules 
clothed himself in this garment he was poisoned by it, and perished in the flames 
of a funeral pile which he built on Mount CEta. Zeus received him as a god, and 
27 



4 1 8 SUP PL EMENT. 

gave to him in marriage Hebe, the goddess of youth. Hercules is usually repre- 
sented as a robust man, leaning on his club, wearing the skin of the Nemean lion 
on his shoulders, and holding the Hesperian fruit in his hands. 

Theseus.-— Theseus, a fabulous king of Athens, was another legendary charac- 
ter of early Greece, and was regarded as the civilizer of Attica. He is said to have 
kidnapped the beautiful Helen, daughter of Tyndarus, king of Sparta; but Helen 
was rescued by her brothers. Castor and Pollux, who were afterwards deified. 

Argonautic Expedition. — In the time of Hercules, Jason, a prince of Thes- 
saly, went on the celebrated Argonautic Expedition, so called from the ship Argo, 
in which he sailed. The following is the story of the Argonautic Expedition, ac- 
cording to the Greek poets. Phryxus, a Theban prince, and his sister Helle, being 
obliged to leave their native country to escape the cruelty of their step>-mother, 
mounted the back of a winged ram with a golden fleece, to be conveyed to Col- 
chis, a country on the eastern border of the Euxine, or pjlack Sea, where an uncle 
of theirs was king. While passing over the strait now called the Dardanelles, 
Helle became giddy, fell into the water, and was drowned; whence the strait re- 
ceived the name of Hellespont, or Sea of Helle. Phryxus arrived safely in Col- 
chis, and sacrified his winged ram to Jupiter in acknowledgment of Divine pro- 
tection, and put the golden fleece into that deity's temple. He was afterwards 
murdered by his uncle, who wished to obtain the golden fleece. It was to avenge 
the death of Phryxus and to secure the golden fleece that Jason undertook the Ar- 
gonautic Expedition. Jason obtained the golden fleece and married Media, 'a 
daughter of the king of Colchis. 

The Gordian Knot. — While Alexander the Great was conquering Asia Minor, 
he found in the citadel of Gordium a very ancient chariot with a knot twisted in 
the most intricate manner, respecting which an oracle had declared that whoever 
should loosen this knot, should conquer Asia. Alexander is said to have cut the 
knot with his sword, considering that sufficient to make him master of Asia. 

Diogenes. — The eccentric philosopher, Diogenes, is said to have lived in a tub 
and to have worn but a single garment. His only worldly possessions were his 
tub, a garment, a staff, and a wooden bowl for drinking. One day observing a 
boy drinking from the hollow of his hand, he dashed his bowl to pieces, saying: 
" That boy has taught me th.it I still have something unnecessary." Being seen 
at one time with a lighted lantern in mid-day in the streets of Athens, and being 
asked what he was hunting, he replied : "An honest man." One day, while mend- 
ing his tub, he is said to have been visited by Alexander the Great, who asked the 
philosopher what he could do to better his condition. Diogenes replied : " Noth- 
ing except to o-et out of the sunshine." Alexander thereupon remarked : " Were 
I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." 

ROMAN LEGENDS. 
Legend of ^neas. — According to the Roman legend, .^neas, a famous Tro- 
jan warrior, left his native country immediately after the fall of Troy, and made 
his way to the western shores of Italy, where he founded the city of Lavinium. 
After slaying in battle Latinus, king of Latium, /Eneas united the Latins with his 
own followers; and thereafter the united people were called Latins. Thirty years 
afterwards, the Latins removed to the Alban Mount, where they built the city of 
Alba. 



HISTORIC LEGENDS. 419 

Legend of Romulus and Remus. — Several centuries after the events just 
related, there reigned at Alba a king named Procas, who had two sons, Numitor 
and Amulius. When Procas died Numitor was to succeed to the throne of Alba ; 
but Amulius seized the throne and made himself king, and afterwards caused the 
son of Numitor to be slain, and made his daughter Sylvia become a Vestal Virgin. 
Svlvia married Mars, the god of war, with whom she had twin sons, Romulus 
and Remus. Amulius ordered the two infants to be drowned in the Tiber, but the 
basket which contained them floated to the foot of the Palatine Hill, where they 
were found by a she-wolf, which carried them to her den and nursed them as her 
own offspring. Some time afterward the two children were taken to the house of 
a shepherd on the Palatine Hill, where they were brought up. At length Remus 
was taken to Alba and brought before Amulius. Romulus and his friends went to 
Alba and rescued Remus, killing Amulius, and placed Numitor on the throne of 
Alba. 

Founding of Rome by Romulus. — Romulus and Remus prepared to return 
to the Palatine Hill, where they resolved to build a city, and they inquired of the 
gods by divination which should give his name to the city. They watched the 
heavens for one day and one night ; and at sunrise Remus saw six vultures, and 
soon afterward Romulus saw twelve. It was decided that the favor of the gods 
was on the side of Romulus, who accordingly began to build a city on the Palatine 
Hill. When Remus, who was mortified and angry, saw the low wall and the 
ditch which inclosed the space for the new city, he scornfully leaped over and 
exclaimed, " Will this keep out an enemy ?" Upon this insulting conduct, Remus 
was slain, either by Romulus or by one of his followers. The city, which was 
named Rome, in honor of Romulus, is thought to have been founded 753 years 
before Christ. Rome at first contained a thousand dwellings; and its population 
was rapidly increased by exiles, criminals, fugitives from justice, and desperate 
characters of all sorts, who fled to the new city for refuge. 

Romulus, first King of Rome. — Seizure of the Sabine women. — 
Romulus was chosen the first King of Rome, and a Senate, of one hundred members, 
was established. But the Romans, as the inhabitants of the new city were called, 
were without wives ; and as the neighboring people refused to give their daughters 
in marriage to such desperate characters, Romulus determined upon securing by 
stratagem what he could not obtain by force. He therefore arranged some games 
and shows at Rome and invited the neighboring people to attend. The Sabines 
and Latins came in great numbers, bringing their wives and daughters with them. 
When the shows began, Romulus gave a signal, whereupon the Roman youth 
rushed upon the unsuspecting strangers, seized the most beautiful maidens, and 
carried them off for wives. 

\A^ar with the Sabines — Treachery and death of Tarpeia. — The outrage 
just mentioned led to a war between the Romans and Sabines. A large army 
under Titus Tatius, the Sabine king, laid siege to Rome. The Romans garrisoned 
and fortified the Capitoline Hill. Tarpeia, the daughter of the Roman com. 
niander, agreed to open the gates of the fortress to the Sabines if they would give 
her the golden bracelets which they wore on their arms. She accordingly opened 
the gates; but as soon as the Sabines entered the fortress, they killed the traitress 
with their brazen shields. Having gained possession of the Capitoline Hill, the 
Sabines were able to defy the Romans for a long time. 



420 



SUPPLEMENT. 



The Temple of Janus. — Many battles were fought between the Romans and 
the Sabines in the valleys which divide the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. At 
length, when the Sabines advanced near the city, the Romans retired inside the 
city walls and shut the gates. As the Sabines were about to enter the city, the gates 
flew open ; the Romans again shut them ; but they opened a second time ; a 
mighty stream of water burst forth from the Temple of Janus, and swept away the 
Sabines who had entered the city. Ever afterward the gates of the Temple of 
Janus stood open when Rome was at war, that the gods might come out to aid the 
Romans ; but in time of peace the gates were always closed. 

Peace between the Romans and the Sabines — Union of the two 
nations. — The Romans made great efforts to retake the Capitolme Hill. At 
length, while the two armies' were combating, the Sabine wives of the Romans 
rushed between the contendmg forces, and, by their earnest entreaties and suppli- 
cations, induced both parties to suspend hostilities. A treaty of peace followed, by 
which the Romans and the Sabines were to be united as one nation, and Romulus 
and Titus Tatius were to reign jointly at Rome. Soon aferward Titus Tatius was 
killed at Lavinium, and Romulus thereafter reigned alone. 

Death of Romulus. — After a reign of thirty-seven years, Romulus came to his 
death in an unknown manner. The Roman legend states that, while he was pres- 
ent at a public meeting in the Field of Mars, there arose a great tempest and whirl- 
wind, while at the same time the sun was eclipsed, and it was as dark as night. 
When the storm was over, and the light of the sun returned, Romulus was not to 
be found. It was believed by the superstitious Romans that his father. Mars, the 
god of war, had carried him to heaven in a fiery chariot. The Romans built a 
temple to Romulus, and worshiped him as a god by the name of Quirinus. (B. C. 
716.) 

Tullus Hostilius — Fight between the Horatii and the Curiatii. — The 

peaceful Numa Pompilius was succeeded as king of Rome by the warlike Tullus 
Hostilius, during whose reign the Romans engaged in a war with the Albans. 
Just as the armies of the Romans and the Albans were about to engage in conflict, 
they agreed to have the contest decided by a combat to be fought by six cham- 
pions, three from each side ; and the defeated nation was to become subject to 
the victorious one. In the Roman army there were three brothers named Hora- 
tii, and in the Alban army there were three brothers named Curiatii. These, 
being fixed upon as the champions, took their places between the two armies and 
engaged in combat. After two of the Horatii had fallen, the other Horatius began 
to flee ; but suddenly turning, he fell upon the three wounded Curiatii, and killed 
them in succession. When the victorious Horatius returned to Rome, he met his 
sister Horatia, who had been betrothed to one of the Curiatii. Horatia shrieked 
aloud, and reproached her brother for his bloody deed, which so enraged Horatius 
that he plunged a knife into his sister's heart, and she fell dead. For this crime 
Horatius was condemned to death, but he was afterward pardoned, because by his 
victory over the Curiatii he had saved the Romans from slavery. By the terms 
of the agreement made just before the combat, the Albans became subject to the 
Romans. 

Expulsion of Tarquin the Proud and Abolition of Monarchy. — While 
the Romans were besieging the town of Ardea, Tarquin's sons, Sextus, Titus, and 



HISTORIC LEGENDS. 421 

Aruns, and their cousin Collatinus, got into a dispute about tlie good qualities of 
their wives, and all agreed to visit their homes by surprise. They found the wives 
of Sextus, Titus, and Aruns, feasting and making merry, while Lucretia, the wife 
of Collatinus, was found working at her loom. They all agreed that Lucretia was 
the worthiest lady. Sextus fell into a violent passion for Lucretia, and shortly 
afterward he behaved toi\'ard her in such a manner that she committed suicide. 
Lucius Junius Brutus, a relative of the royal family, bound himself by an oath to 
avenge the wicked act of Sextus. The outrage of Sextus roused the indignation of 
the Roman people ; and Brutus, showing them the bloody corpse of Lucretia and 
haranguing them, induced them to expel the royal family from the throne of Rome, 
and to abolish monarchy altogether. Tarquin the Proud and his family, finding 
themselves abandoned, retired into voluntary exile (B. C. 510). 

War with Porsenna, King of Clusium — Horatius Codes. — Porsenna, 
King of Clusium, also took the field in favor of the deposed Tarquin the Proud, 
and advanced against Rome with a large army. The Romans were driven across 
the Tiber ; but the Roxnan army was saved by the valor of Horatius Codes, who 
alone defended the wooden bridge that crossed the river until the Romans had all 
crossed, and who then cut down the bridge while the enemy's darts were flying all 
around him, and at last plunged into the stream and reached the opposite shore 
in safety. 

Mutius Scaevola. — At length Porsenna pressed the siege of Rome so closely 
that the people in the city sufiered greatly from famine. But the city was saved 
by the darmg conduct of a young Roman named Mutius Scoevola, who penetrated 
into the enemy's camp for the purpose of assassinating Porsenna, but who, by mis- 
take, killed one of the attendanls of the Clusian king. When threatened with 
torture unless he made a confession, Mutiuus Scaevola thrust his right hand into a 
fire and kept it there uniil it was burni off, to show Porsenna that no torture could 
induce him to betray the plans of his countrymen. Porsenna, admiring such patri- 
otism and courage, gave Scaevola his liberty ; when the heroic young Roman 
warned the Clusian king to raise the siege of Rome and make peace, as three hun- 
dred young Romans had sworn to take his life, and that he had been chosen by 
lot to make the first attempt. Porsenna, alarmed for his life, immediately made 
peace with the Romans and marched home. So says the Roman legend; but 
other accounts say that Porsenna reduced Rome, and that the Romans afterwards 
recovered their independence. 

Banishment of Coriolanus — Veturia and Volumnia. — When, during a 
famine in Rome, a supply of corn arrived from Sicily, the haughty patrician, Caius 
Marcius Coriolanus, proposed that none should be given to the plebeians until they 
consented to have the office of Tribunes abolished. This proposal aroused the 
indignation of the plebeians, and they procured the banishment of Coriolanus. 
Enraged at this treatment, Coriolanus went to the Volscians; and afterwards he 
led a Volscian army against Rome, and laid siege to the city, but he was finally 
induced to retreat from Rome by the entreaties of his wife, Veturia, and his 
mother, Volumnia, who had gone out of the city at the head of a deputation of 
Roman ladies, to persuade Coriolanus not to be the cause of the ruin of his coun- 
try. Coriolanus, yielding to the solicitations of his mother, exclaimed : " Mother, 
you have saved Rome, but you have ruined your son !" It is said that the Vol- 



■22 SUPPLEMENT. 

Rcians, enraged at the retreat of Coriolanus from Rome, put him to death ; but a 
tradition states that he lived to a great age in exile among the Volscians, and that 
he was often heard to exclaim: " How miserable is the condition of an old man in 
banishment !" 

Dictatorship of Cincinnatus — Mount Algidus. — The .-Equians, having 
broken their peace with Rome, and having formed a camp on Mount Algidus, lured 
an army of Romans into a narrow defile, where they must have been taken priso- 
ners, had not the patrician Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus, after having been ap- 
pointed Dictator, come to their relief. The Dictator was an officer superior to 
the Consuls and the Senate, and he had all power over the laws themselves. 
When the deputies of the Senate came to inform Cincinnatus that he had been 
appointed Dictator, they found him ploughing in the field. He immediately left 
his plough, took command of the army, and marched against the enemy ; and, hav- 
ing surrounded them, compelled them to surrender to the Romans. At the end of 
sixteen days, Cincinnatus resigned the dictatorship and returned to his plough. 

Invasion of Italy by the Gauls. — In 390 B. C, Rome was threatened 
by a more powerful enemy than she had ever before encountered — namely, the 
Gauls, who had crossed the Alps into Northern Italy, or Cisalpine Gaul. These 
barbarians were the inhabitants of the country then called Gaul (now France). 
According to tradition, a citizen of the Etruscan city of Clusium having been re- 
fused redress from the magistrates of that city for an injury which he had received 
from one of the chief men of the city, resolved to have revenge on his country. He 
crossed the Alps into Gaul, taking with him a large quantity of the wines and fruits 
of Italy. Seeing that the barbarian Gauls were very much pleased with these pres- 
ents, the injured Clusian invited them to go with him into Italy and take possession 
of the country which produced these delicacies. Immediately an immense horde 
of Gauls, taking with tliem their women and children, crossed the Alps into Italy, 
and marched to Clusium, to which they laid siege. The people of Clusium applied 
for aid to thfe Romans, who thereupon sent ambassadors to induce the Gauls to 
withdraw from Italy. 

March of the Gauls to Rome. — The Roman ambassadors, having failed in 
the object of their mission, joined the Clusians in an attack on the besieging Gauls, 
and killed one of the Gallic chiefs. Brennus, the king of the Gauls, demanded 
satisfaction from the Roman Senute for the conduct of llie ambassadors, and when 
his demand was rejected, he took up his marcli, with 70,000 of his followers, 
directly for Rome. 

Battle on the Allia — Rome Taken and Burned by the Gauls. — On the 

banks of the river Allia, eleven miles from Rome, a great battle was fought, in 
which the Roman army, consisting of 40,000 men, was hopelessly annihilated. 
This defeat rendered it impossible to defend the city, but 1,000 Romans garri- 
soned the Capitol, which they resolved to defend to the last extremity, while the 
greater number of the inhabitants of Rome fled for refuge to the neighboring towns. 
About eighty prie.sts and patricians, resolving never to survive the ruin of their 
city, clothed themselves in their long robes and awaited death. When the Gauls 
entered Rome they found the city deserted, and a death-like silence prevailed ; 
but when they entered the Forum, where sat the aged Senators, they were seized 
with superstitious awe at the sight of those venerable persons, whom they imagined 



HISTORIC LEGENDS. 



423 



to be divinities. At length, one of the Gauls seized hold of the white beard of 
Marcus Papirius, one of the Senators. The old man, enraged at this insult, struck 
the insolent barbarian with his ivory staff; whereupon the Gauls massacred the 
Senators, and set fire to Rome, which, with the exception of the Capitol and a few 
houses on the Palatine Hill, was totally reduced to ashes. 

Defense of the Capitol. — The Gauls vainly attempted to obtain possession of 
the Capitol. They endeavored to climb up the steep ascent in the night, and 
would have succeeded had not the noise of the sacred geese in the Temple of Juno 
awoke Marcus Manlius, who immediately hastened to the spot and hurled down 
the rocky precipice such of the Gauls as attempted to make their way inside the 
walls of the Capitol. 

Departure of the Gauls from Rome. — When/amine began to prey upon the 
Romans who garrisoned the Capitol, and sickness was rapidly reducing the num- 
bers of the Gauls, Brennus, the Gallic chief, agreed to abandon Rome and its ter- 
ritory on condition of receiving a thousand pounds of gold. While the gold was 
being weighed, the banished patrician Camillus arrived with an army for the re- 
lief of the garrison, and ordered the gold to be taken back to the Capitol, saying : 
" It has ever been the custom of us Romans to ransom our countiy, not with gold, 
but with iron." A battle followed, and the Gauls were driven from Rome. The 
Gallic leader, Brennus, was soon afterward taken prisoner by the Romans and put 
to death. So says the Roman legend concerning the retreat of the Gauls from 
from Rome ; but according to a more probable account, the Gauls were recalled 
by a sudden invasion of their own country by the Venetians. The fact of the Gallic 
invasion of Italy and burning of Rome cannot be disputed, but many of alleged 
incidents and circumstances connected with it are fables. 

Death of Regulus. — It is said that after the return of Regulus to Carthage, 
the Carthagmians, enraged at his conduct in breaking off the negotiations for peace, 
cruelly tortured him to death. After cutting off his eyelids and putting him into a 
dark dungeon, they exposed his naked eyes to the burning sun, and' then put him 
into a cask set all around with sharp spikes, where he died in agony. This story is 
believed to have been invented by the Romans to fire their soldiers with deadly 
hatred against the Carthaginians; and there are good reasons for believing that 
Regulus died a natural death. 

MEDT^VAL AND MODERN LEGENDS. 
William Tell and Gesler. — The best known legend of the Middle Ages is 
that of William Tell and Gesler. Gesler was one of the tyrannical Austrian gov 
ernors expelled by the Swiss. He placed the ducal cap of Austria in the market 
place of Altorf, and ordered all who passed to bow to the cap, in token of submis 
sion. William Tell refused to bow to the cap, and was thereupon imprisoned. 
Being a good archer, Tell was promised his freedom if he would shoot an apple 
from his son's head. Tell hit the apple and received his freedom, saying to 
Gesler: "Had I killed my son, I would have killed you." Tell is said to have 
been at once seized by order of the enraged tyrant, and conveyed across the lake 
of Lucerne in a boat in which were Gesler and his attendants ; but a violent storm 
having arisen during the passage. Tell, who was a skillful boatman, was released 
in order that he might conduct the boat in safety to the shore; and no sooner had 



424 SUPPLEMENT. 

the shore been reached, than Tell leaped from the boat, and soon afterward dis- 
patched an arrow into the tyrant's heart, killing him instantly. 

Captain John Smith and Pocahontas. — Captain John Smith, the old Vir- 
ginia pioneer, is said to have been taken prisoner by the Indians, whose chief- 
Powhatan, determined to put him to death ; but Pocahontas, the daughter of Pow- 
hatan, is said to have interceded for the prisoner, and saved his lile; whereupon 
Smith was released and permitted to return to Jamestown. 



IMPORTANT EVENTS. 

ANCIENT TIMES. 
B.C. 

2700 Menes first King of Egypt. 

2500 Supposed founding of the Chaldaean Empire by Nimrod. 

2100 Egypt conquered by the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. 

2082 Abraham settled in the Promised Land of Canaan. 

1867 Jacob and his family settled in Egypt. 

1652 Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt. 

1612 Death of Moses. 

" The Israelites, led by Joshua, settled in Canaan. 
1525 The Hyksos expelled from Egypt. 
1263 Argonautic Expedition. 
1250 The Assyrian Empire founded. 
1194-I184 The Trojan War. 
HOC Return of the Heraclidse. 
I095-1055 Saul first King over Israel. 
1068 Death of Codrus, the last King of Athens. 
1055-1015 David King over Israel. 
1050 Tyre became the leading Phoenician state. 
1015-975 Solomon King over Israel. 
1004 Solomon completed the Temple of Jerusalem. 

975 Revolt of the Ten Tribes. 

878 Carthage founded by the Phoenicians under Queen Dido. 

850 Lycurgus established his code at Sparta. 

776 The First Olympiad. 

753 Rome founded by Romulus. 

743-723 The First Mes>enian War. 

721 The Israelites carried into the Assyrian Captivity. 

708 The Kingdom of Media founded. 

685-668 The Second Messenian War. 

625 Nineveh destroyed and the Assyrian Empire overthrown by the Medes and 
Babylonians. 
" The Babylonian Empire founded by Nabopolassar. 

624 Draco framed a code of laws for Athens. 

600 Rise of Buddhism in India. 

594 Solon framed a code for Athens. 

586 The Jews carried into the Babylonian Captivity. 

560 Usurpation of Pisistratus at Alliens. 

559 Cyrus the Great founded the Medo-Persian Empire. 

546 Cyrus the Great conquered the Kingdom of Lydia. 

538 Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon. 

536 Cyrus the Great permitted the Jews to return to Palestine. 

530 Cyrus the Great defeated and killed by the Scythians. 

525 Cambyses, King of Persia, conquered Egypt. 

521 Darius Hystaspes became King of Persia. 

510 Ilippias expelled from Athens and the Athenian Republic restorec. 



IMPOR TANT E VENTS. 425 

510 Tarquin the Proud expelled from Rome and the Roman Republic founded. 
500 Contucius, the great Chinese moral philosopher, flourished. 
495 Revolt of the Greek cities of Asia Mmor against Persia. 
494 Plebeian insurrection at Rome. 

" Tribunes chosen at Rome. 
490 Banishment of Coriolanus from Rome. 

" Commencement of the Persian War against Greece. 

" Persian Invasion of Greece. 

" Battle of Marathon. 
480 Invasion of Greece by Xerxes, King of Persia. 

" Battle of Thermopylse. 

" Athens burned by the Persians. 

" Battle of Salamis. ] 
479 Battle of Plataea. |- Greek victories over the Persians. 

" Battle of Mycale. J 
471 Themistocles banished from Athens. 
469 Battle of Eurymedon. 
464 Earthquake at Sparta. 

463 Rebellion of the Spartan Helots and the Messenians. 
460 Ezra and Nehemiah rebuilt Jerusalem. 
458 Dictatorship of Cincinnatus. 
450 Decemvirs chosen at Rome. 
449 The Laws of the Twelve Tables framed. 

" Peace between Greece and Persia. 
448 Overthrow of the Decemvirs. 
431 Commencement of the Peloponnesian War. 
429 Plague at Athens and death of Pericles. 
421 Peace of Nicias. 

415 Athenian expedition against Syracuse. 
405 Battle of ^gos-potamos. 
404 Surrender of Athens to the Spartans. 

" The Thirty Tyrants rule in Athens. 
403 The Council of Ten in Athens. 

" Democracy restored in Athens. 
401 Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks from Persia. 
399 Death of Socrates. 

395 Conquest of Veil by the Romans under Camillus. 
390 Italy invaded by the Gauls. 

" Battle on the Allia — the Romans defeated by the Gauls. 

" Rome taken and burned by the Gauls. 
387 Peace of Antalcidas. 
383 Commencement of the Theban War. 
371 Battle of Leuctra. 

366 Adoption of the laws of Caius Licinius Stolo. 
362 Battle of Mantinea and death of Epaminondas. 
358 Beginning of the Sacred War in Greece. 
350 Destruction of Sidon. 

343 First war between the Romans and the Samnites begun. 
342 War between the Romans and the Latins. 
338 Battle of Chseronea and end of Greek independence. 
336 Assassination of Philip of Macedon. 
335 Thebes, in Greece, destroyed by .\lexander the Great. 
334 Alexander's invasion of the Medo-Persian Empire. 

" Battle of the Granicus. 
333 Battle of the Issus. 
332 Tyre taken and destroyed by Alexander the Great. 

" Siege and capture of Gaza by Alexander the Great. 
331 Alexandria, in Egypt, founded by Alexander the Great. 

•' Battle of Arbela and Gaugainela — Overthrow of the Medo-Persian Empire. 
330 Assassination of Darius Codomannus, King of Persia. 



'*■ I Victories of Alexander the Great over the Persians. 



426 SUPPLEMENT. 

328 Conquest of Scythia by Alexander the Great. 

327 Alexander's invasion of India and defeat of Porus. 

324 Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon. 

322 Demosthenes destroyed himself by poison. 

321 The Romans defeated by the Samnites and obliged to pass under the yoke, 

301 Battle of Ipsus and dismemberment of Alexander's empire. 

" The Greek Kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt founded. 

" The Greek Kingdom of the Seleucidce in Western Asia founded. 

" The Kingdom of Macedon and Greece founded. 
290 Subjugation of the Samnites by the Romans. 
281 Pyrrlius, King of Epirus, engaged in a war with Rome. 
280 First victory of Pyrrhus over the Romans. 
279 Second victory of Pyrrhus over the Romans. 
275 Defeat of Pyrrhus by the Romnns. 
272 Conquest of Tarenium by the Romans. 
263 Commencement of the First Punic War. 
255 Defeat of the Romans and captivity of Regulus. 
250 Battle of Panormus — defeat of the Carthaginians. 

" Rise of the Achaean League in Greece. 

" The Parthian Empire founded east of the Euphrates. 
240 End of the First Punic War. 
238 Sicily made a Roman province. 
228 Conquest of the Illyrians by the Romans. 
222 Conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls by the Romans. 
219 Capture of Saguntum, in Spain, by the Carthaginians. 
218 Beginning of the Second Punic War. 

" Hannibal's passage of the Alps and invasion of Italy. 

" Battle of the Ticinus. 

" Battle of the Trebea. 



rytw r-^ffi^ ..n^ ■ ^ Hannibal's victories over the Romans. 

217 Jjattle of 1 rasunenus. ' 

216 Battle of Canna;. 

215 The Great Wall in China built. 

212 Syracuse taken and destroyed by the Romans. 

207 Battle of the Metaurus — liasdrubal defeated by the Romans. 

202 Battle of Zama and end of the Second Punic War. 

197 Battle of Cynoscephalae — Philip V. of Macedon defeated by the Romans. 

190 Battle of Magnesia — Antiochus the Great of Syria defeated by the Romans. 

183 Death of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. 

168 Battle of Pydna and conquest of Macedon by the Romans. 

149 Beginning of the Third Punic War. 

146 Carthage taken and destroyed by Scipio /Emilianus. 

" Corinth destroyed and Greece conquered by the Romans. 

135 The Maccabees freed Jud^a from the yoke of the Seleucidse. 

133 Numantia, in Spain, taken and destroyed by .Scipio /Emiiianus. 

132 Tiberius Gracchus endeavored to secure the enforcement of the agrarian 

law, but was defeated and slain. 

121 Caius Gracchus attempted to secure the enforcement of the agrarian law, 

but was killed in a tumult. 

106 Jugurtha, King of Numidia, defeated and captured by the Romans. 

102 The Teutons annihilated by the Romans. 

loi The Cimbrians annihilated by the Romans. 

90 The Social War in Italy begun — it lasted two years. 

88 First war between Rome and Mithridates, King of Pontus. 

" The civil war between Manus and Sylla begun. 

86 Dictatorship and death of Marius. 

84 Sylla defeated Mithridates, 

81 Sylla assumed the Dictatorship. 

78 Sylla's resignation and death. 

70 Rebellion of Sertorius in Spain suppressed. 

" Crassus subdued the rebellious slaves in Italy under Spartacus. 



I MP OR TANT E VENTS. 427 

67 Pompey subdued the Cilician pirates. 
66 Pompe'y's victory over Mithridates. 

61: Pompey overthrew the Syrian Empire of the Seleucida. 
63 Pompey took Jerusalem and made Judoea tributary to Rome. 
" Mithridates ended his life by poison. 
« Catiline's conspiracy at Rome. 

60 First Triumvirate at Rome— C«^ar, Pompey, and Crassus. 
58 Julius Csesar made governor of G.ml. 
55 Caesar's tirst invasion of Britain. 
54 Cjesar's second invasion of Britain. 
53 Defeat and death of Crassus in Parthia. 
52 Final conquest of Gaul by Ccesar. 
49 Civil war between Pompey and Csesar commenced. 
«' Cffisar's passage of the Rubicon and march to Rome. 
48 Battle of Pharsalia and assassination of Pompey. 
" Cffisar's victory over Ptolemy in Egypt. 

47 Cjesar's victory over Pharnaces, son of Mithridates. . ^ n -.. 

46 Battle of Thapsus— Pompey 's sons and the younger Cato defeated by Caesar. 
45 Battle of Munda— Pompey's sons defeated by Caesar. 
" Dictatorship of Csesar. 
44 Assassination of Csesar. 

43 Second Triumvirate at Rome— Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus. 
42 Battle of Philippi and suicide of Brutus and Cassius. 
31 Battle of Actium and suicide of Antony and Cleopatra. 
■xo Eeypt became a Roman province. 
« End of the Roman Republic— Octavius became Emperor with the title ot 

Augustus. 
4 Birth of Christ. 

^' 9 Defeat of the Roman Legions under Varus by the Germans under Hermann. 

14 Death of the Emperor Augustus. 

29 Crucifixion of Christ. 

CI Caractacus, the British chief, carried captive to Rome. 

64 Boadicea, the British queen, defeated by Suetonius Pauhnus. 

'< Nero's burning of Rome and persecution of the Christians. 

68 Nero's overthrow and death. 

70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus. 

79 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 

96 Final conquest of Britain by the Romans under Julius Agncola. 
226 Beginning of the New Persian Empire of the Sassanidae. 
305 Abdication of the Emperor Dioclesian. 

012 Consiantine the Great embraced Christianity. ^, . ,• -, ^i ^ ,» 

325 Constantine the Great and the Council of Nice made Christianity the re- 
ligion of the Empire. . , r 1 r> t?„, 

336 Consuntine the Great made Constantinople the capital of the Roman Em 

pire. 

337 Death of Constantine the Great. 

361 Julian the Apostate became Emperor of Rome. 

36-, Julian's unfortunate expedition against the New Persians 

364 The Roman Empire divided between Valentinian and Valens. 

396 Stilicho, the general of Hononus, defeated the Gotns in Italy. 

406 The Romans under Stilicho defeated the barbarians. 

410 Rome taken and pillaged by Alaric, King of the Goths. 

448 Angles and Saxons land in Britain. j r- ,v,e 

451 Attila, King of the Huns, defeated at Chalons by the Romans and Goths. 

41:2 Attila's retreat into Pannonia. 

455 Rome taken and plundered by Genseric, King of the Vandals. 

476 Downfall of the Roman Empire of the West. 



428 SUPPLEMEiXT. 

A. D. MIDDLE AGES. 

486 Conquest of Gaul by Clovis, King of the Franks. 

488 Conquest of Italy by Theodoric, King of tlie Ostrogoths. 

496 Clovis defeated the Allemanni in the battle of Tolbiac, and embraced Chris- 
tianity. 

527 Justinian became Emperor of the East. 

535 The Vandal kingdom in Africa conquered by Belisarius. 

537 Rome defended against the Goths by Belisarius. 

554 The Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy conquered by Narses. 

565 Death of tiie Emperor Justinian. 

568 The Lombard kingdom in Italy founded by Alboin. 

597 The Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity. 

622 The Hegira, or Mohammed"s flight from Mecca. 

632 Mohammed's death. 

638 Saracen conquest of Syria. 

640 Saracen conquest of Egypt. 

641 Saracen conquest of Persia. 
660 Accession of the Ommiyades. 

712 Saracen invasion and conquest of Spain. 

732 Saracens defeated near Tours by Charles Martel. 

752 The dynasty of the Ommiyades overthrown by the Abbassides. 

" Beginning of the Popes temporal power. 

768 Death of Pepin the Little and division of the Frank kingdom. 

771 Charlemagne became sole monarch of the Franks. 

775 Charlemagne conquered the Lombard kingdom in Italy. 

77S Charlemagne's rear-guard cut to pieces in the pass of Roncesvalles. 

800 Charlemagne crowned at Rome Emperor of the West. 

S04 Charlemagne subdued the Saxons. 

814 Charlemagne's death. 

827 Kingdom of England founded by Egbert. 

841 Battle of Fontenaille. 

843 Partition Treaty of Verdun — Beginning of modern France and Germany as 
separate nations. 

" Kingdom of Scotland founded by Kenneth II. 

855 The Hungarians settled in the Thiess and Danube valleys. 

871 Alfred the Great became King of England. Died in 901. 

874 A republic founded in Iceland by Norman pirates. 

875 Russia founded by Ruric. 

" Norway founded by Harald Fairhair, and Denmark by Gorm the Old. 

900 Kingdom of Sweden founded. 

911 Settlement of the Normans in France. 

" Germany made an elective empire. 
919-936 Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Germany. 

933 iJefeat of the Hungarians at Merseberg by Henry the Fowler. 
936-973 (3tho the Great, Emperor of Germany. 

955 Defeat of the Hungarians at Lechfeld by Otho the Great. 
987-997 Reign of Hugh Capet in France. 

1000 Kingdom of Hungary Ibunded by Stephen the Pious. 

" Kingdom of Poland founded by Boleslaus I. 

" Vladimir the Great became sovereign of Russia. 

1002 Greenland colonized by Icelanders. 

" Massacre of the Danes in England. 

1016 Danish conquest of England. 

1031 Dissolution of the Saracen Caliphate of Cordova in Spain. 

1060 Norman conquest of Southern Italy. 

I066 Battle of Hastings and Norman Conquest of England. 

1077 Henry IV., Emperor of the West, humiliated by Pope Gregory VII. 

10S5 Pope Urban II., at the Council of Clermont, preached the First Crusade, 

1087 Death of William the Conqueror. 



IMPORTANT EVENTS. 



429 



1096 The First Crusade undertaken. 

1097 The Christian army under Godfrey of Bouillon arrived in Palestine. 
" Siege and capture of Antioch by the Crusaders. 

1099 Siege and capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders. 

1130 Roger II., founded the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily. 

1 139 Kingdom of Portugal founded. 

1 147 St. Bernard of Clairvaux originated the Second Crusade. 

1152-I190 Frederick Barbarossn, Emperor of the West. 

1154-1189 Henry Plantagenet, King of England. 

1 172 Ireland conquered by Henry II. of England. 

1176 Battle of Lignano. — Frederick Barbarossa defeated by the Milanese. 

I180-1223 Philip Augustus, King of France. 

1 187 Sultan Saladin of Egypt wrested Jerusalem from the Christians. 

1 190 Third Crusade undertaken. 

1 191 Saladin defeated by Richard the Lion-hearted. 

1 192 Richard the Lion-hearted imprisoned in Germany. 
I199-1216 John, King of England. 

1204 Fourth Crusade and temporary subversion of the Greek Empire. 

1205 Pope Innocent III. caused the cross to be preached against the Albigenses. 

1206 Zingis Khan, chief of the Moguls, began his career of conquest. 
1215 King John of England forced to sign Magna Charta, June 15. 
1218-1250 Frederick II., Emperor of the West. 

1 226-1270 St. Louis, King of France. 

1228 Fifth Crusade undertaken by the Emperor Frederick II. 

1248 Sixth Crusade and captivity of St. Louis. 

1258 The Moguls overthrew the Caliphate of Bagdad. 

1265 Foundations of the English House of Commons laid. 

1270 Seventh Crusade and death of St. Louis. 

1 273-1 291 Rudolf of Hapsburg, King of Germany. 

1282 The Sicilian Vespers. 

1285-1314 Philip the Fair, King of France. 

1291 Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Palestine, taken by the Turks. 

1296 Battle of Dunbar — John Baliol defeated by Edward I. of England. 

1297 Battle of Stirling — the English defeated by William Wallace. 

1298 Battle of Falkirk — William Wallace defeated by Edward I. 
1305 Martyrdom of William Wallace, the Scottish patriot. 

1314 Battle of Bannockburn — Edward II. of England defeated by Robert Bruce. 

13 1 5 Battle of Morgarlen — victory of the Swiss over the Austrians. 
1328-1350 Philip of Valois, King of France. 

1333 Battle of Halidon Hill — Edward III. of England defeated the Scots. 

1346 Battle of Crecy — Edward HI. of England defeated the French. 

" Battle of Nevil's Cross — King David Bruce of Scotland taken prisoner. 

1347 Calais taken by Edward III. of England after a long siege. 
" Cola di Rienzi became the head of a new Roman Republic. 

1354 Assassination of Cola di Rienzi, "the Last of the Tribunes." 
1356 Battle of Poitiers — King John of France taken prisoner. 
1364 Death of John the Good of France. 

1376 Death of Edward the Black Prince. 

1377 Death of King Edward III. of England, after a fifty years' reign. 
1 38 1 Wat Tyler's insurrection in England. 

1386 Battle of Sempach — victory of the Swiss over the Austrians. 
1397 Union of Calmar — Denmark, Sweden, and Norway united. 
1399 Richard II. of England dethroned by Henry of Lancaster. 

1402 Battle of Angora — .Sultan Bajazet taken prisoner by Tamerlane. 

1403 Battle of Shrewsbury — Henry IV. of England defeated the Percys. 
1414-1418 Council of Constance. 

1415 Battle of Agincourt — Henry V. of England defeated the French. 

1417 Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague. 

1419 Beginning of the Hussite War, which lasted seventeen years. 

1422 Treaty of Troyes — Henry VI. crowned King of England and France. 



/3.30 SUPPLEMENT. 

1429 Joan of Arc compelled the English to raise the siege of Orleans. 
1431 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, perished at the stake. 
1453 The English driven out of France. 

" Sukan Mohammed II. took Constantinople and ended the Greek Empire. 
1455 Commencement of the War of the Roses in England. 
1461-1483 Edward IV., King of England, and Louis XL, King of France. 
147 1 Battles of Barnet and Tevvksbury — the Lancastrians overthrown. 
1479 Union of Aragon and Castde under Ferdinand and Isabella. 

1485 Battle of Bosworth-Field and death of Richard III. of England. 

1486 Bartholomew Diaz discovered the Cape of Good Hope. 

1492 The Moorish Kingdom of Granada conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella. 
" Christopher Columbus discovered America. 

1493 Columbus founded San Domingo. 

1497 Vasca da Gama's voyage to India around the Cape of Good Flope. 
" Sebastian Cabot discovered North America. 

1498 Columbus discovered South America. 

" Amerigo Vespucci's visit to South America. 

1499 The Emperor Maximilian acknowledged the independence of Switzerland. 

1500 Brazil discovered by Cabral. 

A. D. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

1501 Discovery of Central America by Columbus. 

1505 Death of Ivan the Great, Grand-Duke of Moscow. 

1506 Death of Christopher Columbus at Valladolid, Spain. 
r507 The city of Ormuz, in Persia, conquered by Albuquerque. 

1509 Death of Henry VII. of England and accession of Heniy VIII. 

15 10 Albuquerque conquers Goa, which becomes the capital of Portuguese Asia. 

15 1 2 John Fonce de Leon discovered Florida. 

15 13 Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean. 

" Battle of the Spurs and battle of Flodden-Field, September 10. 
1515 Death of Louis XII. of France and accession of Francis I. 

" Battle of Marigiiano, Italy — defeat of the Swiss by Francis L 
1517 Conunencement of the Returmation by Martin Luther. 

'' Conquest of Egypt by the Turks. 

1519 Deatii of the Emperor Maximilian I. and accession of Charles V. 

1520 Luther excommunicated by the Pope and his writings condemned. 
'• Luther burns the papal bull of condemnation. 

" Luther appears i)etbrc the Diet of Worms. 

" Commencement of the hrst war between Charles V. and Francis I, 

" The Field of the Cioth of Gold. 

" Massacre of .Stockholm. 

" Solyman the Magnificent becomes Sultan of Turkey. 

" Ferdinand Magellan discovereii the Straits of Magellan. 

1 521 Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards under Fernando Cortez. 

" Henry VIII. of England writes a volume against the Reformation. 

1523 Death of the Chevalier Bayard. 

" Gustavus Vasa liberates Sweden from the Danish yoke. 

1524 John Verrazzani explored the Atlantic coast of North America. 

1525 Battle of Pavia — Francis I. defeated and made a prisoner. 

1526 Peace of Madrid and release of Francis I. 

" Louis II. of Hungary defeated and killed by the Turks at Mohocz. 
" Hungary comes under the House of Hapsburg. 

1527 The Holy League formed against Charles V. 

" Second war between Charles V. and Francis I. 

" Rome taken and pillaged by the Germans and Spaniards. 

1529 Peace of Cambray between Charles V. and Francis I. 
" Siege of Vienna by Sultan Solyman the Magnificent. 

" The Protestation of the German Reformers at the Diet of Spire. 

1530 Diet of Augsburg — The Augsburg Confession. 



IMPORTANT EVENTS. 



431 



1530 The League of Schmalkald formed by the German Protestants. 

1 53 1 Religious war in Switzerland — Battle of Kappel and death of Zwingle. 

1532 Conquest of Peru by the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro. 

1533 Henry VIII. divorces Catharine of Aragon and marries Anne Boleyn. 
" Accession of Ivan the Terrible, Czar of Russia. 

1534 Henry VIII. created Head of the Church in England. 

" Jacques Cartier discovered the Gulf and River St. Lawrence. 

1535 First expedition of Charles V. to Africa. 

1536 Third war between Charles V. and Francis I. 

Henry VI 1 1, causes Anne Boleyn to be beheaded and marries Jane Seymour. 

1538 Truce of Nice between Charles V. and P'rancis I. 

1540 The Order of Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola. 

1541 Second African expedition of Charles V. 

" Ferdinand De Soto discovered the Mississippi river. 

1542 Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I. 

" Battle of Solvvay Moss — Scots defeated by the English. 

1544 Peace of Crepy between Charles V. and Francis I. 

1547 Death of Henry VIII. of England and accession of Edward VL 

" Death of Francis I. of France and accession of Henry II. 

" Scots defeated by the English in the battle of Pinkie. 

" Beginning of the religious war in Germany. 

1552 Duke Maurice of .Saxony makes war on the Emperor Charles V. 
" Religious Peace of Passau. 

1553 Death of Edward VI. of England and accession of Mary. 

1554 Religious Peace of Augsburg. 

1556 Abdication and retirement of the Emperor Charles V. 

" Philip II., King of Spain, and Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany 

1558 The French wrest Calais from the English. 
" Death of Charles V. 

" Death of Queen Mary of England and accession of Elizabeth. 

1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambresis between England, France, Spain and Scot 

land. 

" Death of Henry II. of France and accession of Francis II. 

1560 Death of Francis II. of France, and accession of Charles IX. 

1562 The first religious war in France.— Ended by Peace of Amboise, 1563. 

1565 Mary, Queen of Scots, marries Lord Darnley. 

1566 Murder of Mary's favorite, David Rizzio. 

" Death of Sultan Solyman the Magnihcent. 

1567 The second religious war in France. — Ended by Peace of St. Germain, 1568. 
" Murder of Lord Darnley, the second iiusband of Mary, Queen of .Scots. 

" Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothwell. 

1568 Mary, Queen of Scots, flees to England, where she is kept a prisoner. 

1570 Denmark acknowledged Sweden's independence by the Peace of Stettin. 

1571 Battle of Lepanto — the Turkish navy annihilated. 

1572 P'ounding of the Dutch Republic under William of Orange. 
" Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

1574 Death of King Charles IX. of France and accession of Henry III. 

1576 The Pacification of Giient. 

1579 The Union of Utrecht. 

15S0 Portugal united with Spain. 

1581 Assassination of William of Orange, Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic. 

1587 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, by order of Elizabeth. 

1588 The Spanish Armada sent against England — destroyed by storms. 
" Death of the Czar Ivan the Terrible of Russia. 

1589 Henry III. of France besieges rebellious Paris. 

" Assassination of Henry III. and accession of Henry IV. 

1590 Siege of Paris by King Henry IV. 

1593 Henry IV. becomes a CathoHc, and thus brings peace to France. 

1596 Battle of Kerestezes — 50.000 Christians killed by the Turks. 

1598 Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV. tolerating Protestantism. ' 



432 



SUPPLEMENT. 



1598 Catholic rebellion in Ireland. 

■' Death of Philip II. of Spain, and accession of Philip III. 

1600 English East India Company chartered by Queen Elizabeth. 

A. D. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

1601 Execution of the Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favorite. 
1603 Death of Queen EUzabeth of England and accession of James I. 

1605 The Gunpowder Plot in London. 

" Settlement of Acadia (now Nova Scotia) by the French under De Monts. 

1606 The London and Plymouth Companies in England chartered by King 

James I. 

1607 Virginia settled by the English at Jamestown. 

" Peace of Sitvatorok between Ciermany and Turkey. 

1608 Quebec founded by Samuel Champlain. 

1609 Samuel Champlain discovered Lake Champlain. 
" Henry Hudson discovered the Hudson River. 

" Holland became independent of Spain. 

1 610 Assassination of Henry IV. of France and accession of Louis XIII. 
" Expulsion of 600,000 Moors from Spain. 

" Moscow taken by the Poles. 

1612 Moscow burned by the Poles. 

1613 Michael Romanoff became Czar of Russia. 

1614 Captain John Smith explored and named New England. 
" Adrian Block discovered the Connecticut River. 

1617 Peace of Stolbova between Russia and Sweden. 

1618 Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh. 

" Beginning of the Thirty Years' War by the Bohemian revolt. 

1619 Death of the Emperor Matthias of Germany and accession of Ferdinand II. 
" The first legislative assembly in America met at Jamestown, Virginia, Tune 

28. 

1620 Negro slavery in the present United States begun at Jamestown, Virginia. 
" Massachusetts settled by English Puritans at Plymouth, December 22. 

1623 New Netherlands (now New York) settled by the Dutch at New Amster- 

dam (New York). 
" New Hampshire settled by the English at Dover and Portsmouth. 

1624 Cardinal Richelieu became Prime Minister of France. 

1625 Death of James I. of England and accession of Charles I. 

" Frederick, King of Bohemia, defeated by the Emperor Ferdinand II. 
" King Christian IV. of Denmark aided the German Protestants. 

1626 Defeat of Christian IV. of Denmark by Tilly, the imperial general. 

1628 Richelieu humbled the Huguenots by the capture of La Rochelle. 

" Validity of the Petition of Right acknowledged by King Charles I. of Eng- 
land. 
" Salem, Massachusetts, founded by John Endicott. 

1629 Peace of Lubec between the King of Denmark and the Emperor of Ger- 

many. 
" The Edict of Restitution published by the Emperor Ferdinand II. 
" King Charles I. of England dissolves his Parliament, which is not again 

assembled for eleven years. 

1630 King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden aids the German Protestants. 

" Boston and other towns in Massachusetts founded by English Puritans. 

163 1 Magdeburg taken and destroyed by Tilly. 

'• Battle of Breitenfeld and Leipsic — Tilly defeated by Gustavus Adolphus. 

1632 Battle of Lutzen — victory and death of Gustavus Adolphus, November 16. 

1634 Assassination of Wallenst'ein bv order of the Emperor Ferdinand II. 
" Maryland settled at St. Mary's' bv English Roman Catholics. 

1635 Connecticut settled at Windsor, Wetherstield, and Saybrook, by the English. 

1636 Hartford, Connecticut, founded by Rev. Thoma.s Hooker. 
" Providence, Rhode Island, founded by Roger Williams. 



IMPORTANT EVENTS. 433 

1637 Extermination of the Pequod Indians by the Connecticut settlers. 
" Presbyterian rebellion in Scotland. 

1638 New Haven, Connecticut, founded by Rev. John Davenport. 

" Newport and Portsmouth, Rhode Island founded by William Coddington. 

«« Exeter, New Hampshire, founded by Rev. John Wheelwright. 

" New Sweden (now Delaware) settled by the Swedes, near Wilmington. 

1640 Portugal recovered her independence. 

" Frederick William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg — Died 1688. 

1641 Catholic rebellion in Ireland. 

1642 The civil war in England begun between Cavaliers and Roundheads. 
" Battle of Edge Hill, England, October 23. 

" Death of Cardinal Richelieu, December. 

1643 Death of Louis XI 11. of France and accession of Louis XIV. 

" The confederacy of " The United Colonies of New England " established. 

1644 Battle of Marston Moor — the Royalists defeated by Cromwell, July 2. 

1645 Battle of Naseby — Charles I. overthrown, June 14. 

1648 The Peace of Westphalia terminates the Thirty Years' War. 
" The Civil Wars of the Fronde commence in France. 

" Colonel Pride's Turge— Eighty-one Presbyterians expelled from Parliament. 

1649 Execution of King Charles I. of England, January 30. 
" The Commonwealth of England established. 

1650 Battle of Dunbar— the Scotch Covenanters defeated by Cromwell, Septem- 

ber 3. 

165 1 Battle of Worcester — the English royalists defeated by Cromwell, Sep- 

tember 3. 
" The Navigation Act passed by the English Parliament. 

1652 Commencement of a naval war between England and Holland. 

1653 Cromwell dissolved the " Rump Parliament," April. 
" Barebone's Parliament, April to December. 

" Oliver Cromwell created Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England. 

1654 Peace of Westminster between England and Holland. 

" Abdication of Queen Christina of Sweden and accession of Charles X. 
" Charles X. of Sweden invaded Poland. 

1655 War between England and Spain. 

" Conquest of the island of Jamaica by the English. 

" Conquest of New Sweden by the Dutch of New Netherlands. 

" Civil war in Maryland between the Catholics and Protestants. 

1656 Charles X. of Sweden took Warsaw after a three days' battle. 

1658 Charles X. of Sweden invaded Denmark and besieged Copenhagen. 
" Peace of Roskild between Sweden and Denmark. 

" Death of Oliver Cromwell, September 3. 

" Richard Cromwell became Lord Protector, but soon resigned. 

1659 Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. 

1660 King Charles X. of Sweden again invaded Denmark and besieged Copen-- 

hagen. 
" Peace of Copenhagen between Sweden and Denmark. 
" Peace of Olivia between Sweden and Poland. 
" Royal power made absolute in Denmark by the Royal Law. 
" Restoration of Monarchy in England— Charles II. King, May 29. 

1661 Death of Cardinal Mazarin, Prime Minister of France. 

1663 Naval war between England and Holland. 

" North Carolina settled by English planters at Edenton. 

1664 Turkish invasion of Austria and defeat at St. Gothard — truce of Vasvar. , 
" New Netherlands conquered by the English and named New York. 

'< New Jersey settled by English Puritans at Elizabeth, 

1665 Great plague in London. 

1666 Great lire in London. 

1667 Peace of Breda between England and Holland. 

" Louis XIV. of France made conquests in the Spanish Netherlands. 
" Peace of Andrussov between Russia and Poland. • 

28 



434 



SUPPLEMENT. 



16GS Triple Alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden against France. 

" Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle — Louis XIV. restored his conquest. 

1669 The island of Candia conquered by the Turks. 

1670 South Carolina settled by English emigrants at Ashley river. 

1672 Louis XIV. invaded Holland with a powerful army. 

1673 T'^^ Mississippi river explored by Louis Joliet and Jacques Marquette. 
" John Sobieski's victory over the Turks at Kotzim. 

1674 Spain and the German Empire join Holland in the war against France. 
" William of Orange defeated by Marshal Turenne at Senef 

1675 Battle of Fehrbellin, June 28 — the Swedes defeated by the Great Elector. 
" King Philip's War in New England. 

1676 Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia. 

1678 Peace of Ninieguen between France and the allies. 

" The Habeas Corpus Act passed by the English Parliament. 

1679 Peace of Lund between Sweden and Denmark. 

1680 Charles XI. made royal power absolute in Sweden. 
'• Charleston, South Carolina, founded. 

1681 Pennsylvania settled by English Quakers at Chester. 

1682 Philadelphia founded by William Penn. 

" The Mississippi river explored by Robert de la Salle. 

1683 Rye-House Plot in England — Execution of Russell and Sidney. 

" John Sobieski, King of Poland, forced the Turks to raise the siege of Vienna. 

" Algiers bombarded by a French fleet. 

1684 Genoa bombarded by a French fleet. 

1685 Death of Charles II. of England and accession of James IL 

'• Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and persecution of the Huguenots. 

1656 League of Augsburg — Germany, Spain, Holland and Sweden against France. 

1657 Austrian victory over the Turks at Mohacz. 

1688 Desolation of the Palatinate by the French. 

" Revolution in England and flight of James II. 

1689 The Bill of Rights passed by the English Parliament. 

" William and Mary created joint sovereigns of England. 

" England joined the allies in the war against Louis XIV. 

" Catliolic rebellion in Ireland. 

" Peter the Great became Czar of Russia. 

1690 Tourville's victory over the English fleet at Beachy Head. 
•' The French defeat the allies at Fleurus. 

■' Battle of the Boyne, Ireland — James II. defeated by William III. 

1691 Austrian victory over the Turks at Salankeinen. 

1692 Naval battle oft Cape La Hogue — Beginning of England's naval superiority. 
" William III. of England and Holland defeated at Steinkirk. 

" Massacre of Glencoe, Scotland. 

" Salem Witchcraft in Massachusetts. 

1694 French naval victory over the English in Lagos Bay. 

•' French victory over the Duke of Savoy at Marsaglia. 

" William III. of Englmd and Holland defeated at Neerwinden. 

1697 Peace of Ryswick between France and the allies. 

'• Charles Xil. became King of Sweden. 

'• Prince Eugene defeated the Turks at Zenta. 

1699 Peace of Carlowitz between Turkey and the allies. 

1700 Death of Charles II. of Spain and accession of Philip of Anjou. 

•• Charles XII. of Sweden forced the King of Denmark to make peace. 

•• Battle of Narva — Charles XII defeated the Russians, November 30. 

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

1701 Founding of the Kingdom of Prussia. 

" Cnarles XII. of Sweden defeats the Poles at Riga. 

1702 Death of William 111. of England and accession of Queen Anne. 
" Commencement of'the War of the Spanish Succession. 



IMPORTANT EVENTS. 



435 



1702 Charles XII. of Sweden defeats the Poles at Clissow. 
" Charles XII. enters Warsaw in triumph. 

1703 St. Petersburg founded by the Czar Peter the Great. 
" Charles XII. of Sweden defeats the Poles at Pultusk. 

1704 Charles XII. of Sweden deposes Augustus II. of Poland, 
" Capture of Gibraltar by Sir George Rooke, August 4. 

'• Battle of Blenheim, August 13. 

1706 Battle of Rainillies, May 23. 

" Battle of Turin, September 6. 

" Peace of Altranstadt between Charles XII. of Sweden and the Elector of 
Saxony. 

1707 Battle of Almanza, Spain, April 25. 

" Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland. 

1708 Battle of Oudenarde, July 11. 

" Charles XII. of Sweden invades Russia. 

1709 Battle of Pultowa, July 8. 

" Battle of Malplaquet, September il. 

1710 Charles XII. of Sweden seeks refuge in Turkey. 

" French victories in Spain over the English and Austrian?, December. 

" The French colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia) conquered by the English. 

1711 Accession of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany. 

" Four days battle between the Turks and the Russians. 

" The Tuscarora Indians make war on the North Carolina settlers. 

" Unfortunate English expedition against Quebec. 

17 13 Peace of Utrecht, April 11. 

17 14 Peace of Rastadt, March 7. 

" Death of Queen Anne of England and accession of George I. 

1715 Charles XII. returns to Sweden. 

" Death of Louis XIV. of France and accession of Louis XV. 

" The Yamasee Indians make war on the South Carolinians. 

" Jacobite rebellion in England and Scotland. 

1716 Battle of Sheriff Muir, Scotland. 

•• Austria joins Venice in a war against Turkey. 

'• Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Peterwardein. 

17 17 Prince Eugene annihilates a Turkish army at Belgrade. 

1718 Peace of Passarovitz between Austria, Venice, and Turkey. 
" War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain. 

" Siege of Freuerikshall and death of Cliarles XII. of Sweden, December 11. 

" Founding of New Orleans, Louisiana, by the French. 

1720 Peace of Stockholm between Sweden, Denmark, Poland, and Prussia. 

1721 Peace of Nystadt between Sweden and Russia. 
1725 Death of Peter the Great of Russia. 

1727 Death of George I. of England and accession of George II. 

1733 Georgia settled and .Savannah founded by the English under Oglethorpe, 

" War of the Polish Succession begun. — Ended in 1738. 

1737 Austria joins Russia in a war against Turkey. 

1739 Peace of Belgrade between Austria and Turkey. , 
•' Colonial and maritime war between England and Spain. 

" Porto Bello, South America, taken by Admiral Vernon's fleet. 

1740 Death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany. 
" Frederick the Great becomes King of Prussia. 

" Coalition against Maria Theresa and War of the Austrian Succession. 

" Frederick the Great begins the First Silesian War. 

1741 Battle of Molvitz, April 10 — defeat of the Austrians by Frederick the Great. 
" A French army under Marshal Bellersle invades Bohemia. 

" Admiral Vernon and General Wentworth repulsed in an attack upon Car- 

thagena. South America. 

" War between Russia and Sweden. — Ended in 1743. 

1742 Battle of Czaslau, May 17 — defeat of the Austrians by Frederick the Great, 
" Peace of Breslau between Austria and Prussia. 

« Marshal Belleisle's retreat through Germany to the Rhine. 



Battle of Preston Pans, Scotland, Sefttember 21. < -.r- , • c .<. r. . , 
- - ' - ^ *- Victories of the Pretender. 



436 SUPPLEMENT. 

1743 England's alliance with Maria Theresa. 

" Battle of Dettingen, June 27 — George II. of England defeats the French. 

1744 Second Silesian War and Frederick's capture of Prague. 

1745 Battle of Hohenfriedberg, June 4. ^ 

" Battle of Sorr, September 30. l Victories of Frederick the Great. 

" Battle of Kesselsdorf, December 25. j 

" Peace of Dresden between Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa. 

" Battle of Fontenoy, May 11. 

" Capture of Louisburg, North America, by the English, June 28. 
Rise of the Young Pretender in Great Britain. 

. \- 

1746 Battle of Falkirk, Scotland, January 13. / 
" Battle of Culloden, Scotland, April 16 — overthrow of the Pretender. 
" Battle of Raucoux, October il. 

1747 Battle of Laffeld, July 2. 

1748 Peace of Aixla-Cnapelle, October. 

1754 War begun in North America between the English and the French. 

1755 Braddock's defeat and death near Fort Du Quesne, Pennsylvania, July 9. 

1756 Coalition against Frederick the Great, and opening of the Seven Years' War. 
" Sudden invasion of Saxony by Frederick the Great. 

•' Battle of Lowosiiz, Bohemia. 

•' Surrender of the Saxon army. 

" Capture of the Ei^i^lish fort and garrison at Oswego by the Marquis de 
Montcalm. 

" The French wrest the island of Minorca from the English. 

" Surajah Dowlah confines 146 Englishmen in the " Black Hole" of Cal- 
cutta. 

1757 Battle of Plassey, India, June 23 — Clive defeats Surajah Dowlah. 
" Battle of Prague, Bohemia, May 6. 

" Battle of Kolin, Bohemia, June 18. 

" Battle of Rossbach, Saxony, November 5. 

" Battle of I.euthen, Silesia, December 5. 

" Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm. 

1758 Battle of Zorndorf, Prussia, August 24. 

" Battle of Hochkirchen, Saxony, October 14. 

" Capture of Louisburg, North America, by the English. 

" Capture of P^ort Frontenac, North America, by the English. 

" Capture of Fort Du Quesne, North America, by the English. 

1759 Battle of Minden, Hanover, August I. 

" Battle of Kiinersdorf, Silesia, August 12. 

♦' Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point by the English. 

<' Capture of Fort Niagara by the English. 

" Defeat of the French at Quebec and death of Wolfe and Montcalm, Sep- 
tember 13. 

" Quebec surrendered to the English, September 18. 

1760 Battle of Sillery, Canada, April 28. 

" Battle of Liegnitz, Silesia, August 16. 

" Surrender of Iviontreal, Canada, to the English, September 8. 

" Death of George II. of England and accession of George III. 

" Bat'.le of Torgau, Saxony, November 3. 

1761 Family Compact between France and Spain. 

1762 Capture of Havana, Cuba, by the British navy. 

" Murder of Peter III. of Russia, and accession of Catharine II. 

1763 Peace of Paris between England, France, Spain, and Portugal, Feb. lO. 
" Peace of Hubertsburg between Austria a«d Prussia, February 21. 

1765 Passage of the Stamp Act by the British Parliament. 

1766 Repeal of the Stamp Act by the British Parliament, March 6. 

1767 Parliament levies duties on articles imported into America. 

" Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore, begins a war against the English. 

1768 War between Russia and Turkey. 



IMPORTANT EVENTS. 437 

1769 France acquires Corsica. 

1770 "Boston Massacre," March 5. 

" Bender stormed and taken by the Russians. 

1772 First Partition of Poland. 

1773 Destruction of tea in Boston harbor, December 16. 

1774 Passage of the Boston Port Bill. 

" The port of Boston closed against all commerce, June I. 

" The First Continental Congress assembles in Philadelphia, September 5. 

" Death of Louis XV. of France and accession of Louis XVL 

" Peace of Kudschuk-Kairnardji between Russia and Turkey. 

1775 The American Revolution begun by the skirmishes at Lexington and Con- 

cord, Massachusetts, April 19. 

" The Second Contniental Congress assembles in Philadelphia, May 10. 

" Capture of Ticonderoga by Colonel Ethan Allen, May 10. 

" Capture of Crown Point by Colonel Seth Warner, May 12. 

" Washington chosen commander-in-chief, June 15. 

" Battle of Bunker's Hill, Massachusetts, June 17. 

" American invasion of Canada, September. 

" Defeat of Governor Dunmore in Virginia. 

" Capture of Montreal by General Montgomery, November 13. 

" Defeat of the Americans at Quebec and death of Montgomery, December 3I. 

1776 Washington compels the British to evacuate Boston, March 17. 

" The British repulsed at Fort Moultrie, near Charleston, South Carolina, 

June 28. 

" Declaration of American Independence, July 4. 

" Battle of Long Island, August 27. 

«' Battle of White Plains, Nevi' York, October 28. 

" Capture of Fort Washington by the British, November 16. 

" Washi.igton's retreat across New Jersey, December. 

" Battle of Trenton, New Jersey — 1000 Hessians captured, December 26. 

1777 Battle of Princeton, New Jersey, January 3. 
" Battle of Bennington, Vermont, August 16. 

" Battle of Brandy wine, Pennsylvania, September 11. 

" First Battle of Saratoga, New York, September 19. 

" Massacre of Paoli, Pennsylvania, September 20. 

" Battle of Germantown, Pennsylvania, October 4. 

" Second battle of Saratoga, New York, October 7. 

" Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17. 

1778 Washington's encampment at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. 

" Franco- American Alliance — War between England and France. 

" Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey, June 28. 

" Massacre of Wyoming, Pennsylvania, July 3, 4, and 5. 

" Battle of Quaker Hill, Rhode Island, August 29. 

" Capture of Savannah, Georgia, by the British under Colonel Campbell, 

December 29. 
177.9 Battle of Kettle Creek, Georgia, February 13. 

•' Battle of Brier Creek, Georgia, March 3. 

" Battle of Stono Ferry, South Carolina, June 20. 

" Spain declares war against England, June. 

" Capture of Stony Point, New York, by General Anthony Wayne, July 16. 

" Capture of Paulus Hook, New Jersey, by Major Henry Lee, July 19. 

" General Sullivan's chastisement of the In'lians in New York, August. 

" John Paul Jones's great naval victory off Flamborough Head, England, Sep 

tember 23. 

" Repulse of the French and Americans at Savannah, Georgia, October 9. 
17S0 Surrender of Charleston, South Carolina, to the British, May 12. 

" Battle of Sanders' Creek, South Carolina, August i6. 

" Battle of Fishing Creek, South Carolina, August 18. 

" Arnold's treason discovered, September 22. 

" Execution of Major Andre, October 2. 



438 



SUPPLEMENT. 



1780 Battle of King's Mountain, South Carolina, October 7. 
" Death of the Empress Maria Theresa. 

" Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore, defeated by the English. 

" England declares war against Holland, December 20. 

" Armed Neutrality against England. 

1781 Battle of the Cowpens, South Carolina, January 17. 

•' Battle of Guilford Court House, North Carolina, March 15. 

" Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, South Carolina, April 25. 

" Siege of Fort Ninety-Six, South Carolina, May. 

" Capture of Augusta, Georgia, June 5. 

" Battle of Eutaw Springs, South Carolina, September 8. 

" Siege of Yorktown, Virginia, commenced by Washington, September 28. 

" Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, October 19. 

1782 Admiral Rodney's great naval victory over the Count de Grasse in the West 

Indies, April 12. 

•' Repulse of the French and Spaniards at Gibraltar, September 13. 

1783 Peace of Paris — American independence acknowledged, September 3. 
" Conquest of the Crimea by the Russians. 

1784 Democratic insurrection in Holland. 

1756 Death of Frederick the Great at Potsdam, August 17. 

1757 King Frederick William H. of Prussia restores the Stadtholder's authority 

in Holland. 

" Impeachment of Warren Hastings. 

" The United States Constitution framed, September. 

" War of Russia and Austria against Turkey. 

1788 The Russians under Potenikin take Oczakow, December 17. 
" War between Russia and Sweden. 

" Rebellions in the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary. 

" Ratification and adoption of the United States Constitution. 

1789 The United Stales Constitution goes into operation, March 4. 

" General Washington inaugurated first President of the United States 
April 30. 

" Assembling of the States-General at Versailles, May 5. 

" The States General declares itself a National Assembly, June 17. 

" The French Revolution begun by the storming of the Bastile, July 14. 

" The Paris mob forces Louis XVI. to remove from Versailles to Paris, Oc- 
tober 5. 

1790 The Festival of the li'ederation in Paris, July 14. 

" The Russians under Suwarrow take Ismail, December 22. 

" Peace between Sweden and Russia. 

" Tippoo Saib, the son and successor of Hyder Ali, renews the war against 
the English. 

1791 Vermont admitted into the American Union. 
" Death of the Count de Mirabeau, April 2. 

" Unsuccessful attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from France, June. 

" The French Legislative Assembly convenes at Paris, October I. 

" Peace between Austria and Turkey. 

1792 Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey. 

" Tippoo Saib defeated and forced to make peace. 

" Assassination of Gustavus III. of Sweden, March. 

" Kentucky admitted into the American Union. 

" France declares war against Austria and Prussia, April 20. 

" Austro- Prussian invasion of France, July. 

" Insurrection and massacre in Paris, August 10. 

" Flight of General Lafayette to the .\ustrians. 

" Massacre of the Prisons in Paris, September 2-5. 

" Battle of Valmy, France, September 20. 

" The French National Convention assembles in Paris and declares France a 

Republic, September 22. 

" Battle of Jemappes, Belgium, November 6. 



IMPOR TANT E VENTS. 439 

1793 Execution of King Louis XVI. of France, January 21 

" France declares war against England, Spain, and Holland. 
« Battle of Neervvinden, Belgium, March 18. 
" Dumourier seeks refuge among the Austrians, March. 
•' Second Partition of Poland, April. 
" The Reign of Terror in France. 
" Insurrection of La Vendee. 
" Insurrections of Lyons, Marseilles, and Toulon. 
" Trial and execution of Marie Antoinette. 
" Execution of the Girondist leaders, October 31. 

« The French National Convention abolishes the Christian rehgion, Novem- 
ber 10. 

1794 Execution of Danton and his partisans, March. 

'< Execution of Robespierre and his adherents, July 28. 

« French victory over the Austrians at Fleurus. 

" Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania. 

" Jay's Treaty— between the United States and Great Britain. 

" General Wavne subdues the Indians in Ohio. 

" Kosciusko defeated and wounded by the Russians, October 10. 

1795 Third Partition of Poland, January. 

" Holland subdued and revolutionized by the French. 
« Peace between France, and Spain and Prussia, April 5. 
« Insurrection of the Sections in Paris, October 3-5. 
« Establishment of the Directory in France, October 27. 

1796 Battles of Montenotte and Milessimo, Italy, April. 
" Battle of Lodi, Italy, May 10. 

" Tennessee admitted into the American Union. 
" Death of Catharine II. of Russia and accession of Paul. 
" Moreau-s masterly retreat through the Black Forest, September. 
" Battles of Areola, Italy. November 15, 16, 17. 
1707 Battle of Rivoli, Italy, January. 

" John Adams inaugurated President of the United States, March 4. 
" Peace of Campo Formio between France and Austria, October 17. 
«' End of the Venetian Republic. 

1798 Rebellion in Ireland. 

" Bonaparte invades Egypt, July I. 

" Battle of the Pyramids, Egvpt, July 21. 

« Battle of the Nile— Lord Nelson destroys the French fleet, August I. 

1799 Coalition of Austria, Russia, England, and Turkey against France. 
" Bonaparte's invasion of Syria, February. 

" Siege of Acre, Syria, by Bonaparte, March and April. 

" Battle of Mount Tabor, Syria, March. 

" Fall of Senngapatam and death of Tippoo Saib, May 4. 

" Victories of the Austrians and Russians over the French m Germany and 

Italy. 
" Battle of Aboukir, Egypt, August 25. 
" Battle of Zurich, Switzerland, September 26, 27. 
» Defeat of the English by the French in Holland. 
» Bonaparte overthrows the Directory and is made Fi«t.<-0'«"'- 
« Death of General Washington at Mount Vernon, Virginia, December 14. 

1800 Washington City becomes the capital of the United States. 
" Bonaparte's passage of the Alps, May and June. 

<' Battle of Marengo, Italy, June 14. 

" Battle of Hohenlinden, Bavaria, December 3. 

NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

1801 Parliamentarv Union of Great Britain and Ireland, January I. 
" Peace of Luneville between France and Austria, February 9. 
<' Inauguration of President Thomas Jefferson, March 4. 



44° 



SUPPLEMENT. 



1801 Assassination of the Czar Paul and accession of Alexander I., March 
" Expulsion of the French from Egypt by the English, March. 

" Lord Nelson defeats the Danish fleet at Copenhagen, April 2. 

" War between the United States and Tripoli. — Ended in 1805. 

1802 Peace of Amiens between England and France, March 27. 
" Ohio admitted into the American Union. 

" Revolt of San Domingo against the French. 

1803 Louisiana purchased from France by the United States. 
■' Renewal of the war between England and France. 

" War between the English and the Mahrattas of India. 

" Battle of Assaye, India — Sir Arthur Wellesley defeats the Mahrattas. 

" Emmett's rebellion in Ireland. 

1S04 Execution of the Duke d'Enghien. 

" War between Great Britain and Spain, December. 

" Napoleon crowned Etuperor of the French, December 2. 

" Austria made an Empire. 

1805 Napoleon crowned King of Italy, May 26. 

•' Coalition of England, Austria, Russia and Sweden against Napoleon. 

" The Austrian General Mack, surrenders Ulm to Napoleon, October 20. 

" Battle of Trafalgar — victory and death of Lord Nelson, October 21. 

" Napoleon enters Vienna, the Austrian capital, November 13. 

" Battle of Austerlitz, Austria, December 2. 

" Peace of Presburg between France and Austria, December 26. 

1806 End of the German Empire and formation of the Confederation of the Rhine. 
" Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples, and Louis Bonaparte King of Holland. 

" War breaks out between France and Prussia, August. 

" Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, Prussia, October 14. 

" Napoleon enters Berlin, the capital of Prussia, October 25. 

" Napoleon's Berlin Decree establishing the Continental System, November 

21. 

" War between Russia and Turkey. 

1807 Battle of Eylau, Prussia, February 8. 
" Battle of Friedland, Prussia, June 14. 

" Peace of Tilsit between France, Russia, and Prussia, July 7. 

" Jerome Bonaparte becomes King of Westphalia. 

" The Leopard's attack on the Chesapeake, June 22. 

" Aaron Burr's trial for treason and acquittal. 

" Robert Fulton's first successful steamboat voyage. 

" Bombardment of Copenhagen by the British navy, September 2-5. 

" War between Russia and Sweden. 

" The royal family of Portugal sails for Rio Janeiro, in Brazil, November 27, 

" The French occupy Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, November 30. 

1808 Napoleon dethrones the Bourbons in Spain. 

" Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain. 

" Beginning of the Peninsular War. 

" Dupont's capitulation of Baylen, July 20. 

" The Portuguese resist the French and are aided by the English, August. 

" Battle of Vimiera, Portugal, August 21. 

" Convention of Cintra — French evacuation of Portugal. 

1809 Battle of Corunna, Spain — victory and death of Sir John Moore, January 16. 
" Saragossa, Spain, taken by the French, after a long siege, February 20. 

" Inauguration of President James Madison, March 4. 

" Gustavue IV. of .Sweden deposed by the Swedish Diet, March 13. 

" Sweden ceded Finland to Russia by the Peace of Frederikshamm. 

" War breaks out between France and Austria, April. 

" Battle of Eckmiihl, Bavaria, April 19-22. 

" Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13. 

" Battle of Aspern, May 21, 22. 

" Tyrolese revolt against the Bavarian Government. 

" Pope Pius VII. imprisoned in France, July. 



IMPORTANT E VENTS. 



441 



1809 Battle of Wagram, Austria, July 5, 6. 
" Battle of Talavera, Spain, July 28. 

" Peace of Schoenbrunn between France and Austria, October 14. 

" Napoleon's divorce from Josephine, December. 

1810 Napoleon's marriage with the Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria, January. 
" Holland annexed to the French Empire. 

" Bernadotte elected Crown-Prince of Sweden. 

" Beginning of the Spanish- American War for Independence. 

181 1 The Little Belt's attack on the President, May 16. 
•' Battle of Tippecanoe, Indiana, November 7. 

" Massacre of the Mamulukes by Mehemet Ali, Pacha of Egypt. 

1812 Louisiana admitted as a State of the American Union. 
" Peace of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey. 

" The United States declare war against Great Britian, June 19. 

" Napoleon crosses the Niemen and invades Russia, June 24. 

" Battle of Salamanca, Spain, July 22. 

" Hull's surrender of Detroit, Michigan, August 16. 

" Battle of Smolensk, Russia, August 17. 

" Battle of Borodino, Russia, September 7. 

" Napoleon enters Moscow, September 15. 

" Burning of Moscow, September 16-19. 

" Battle of Queenstown, Canada, October 13. 

" Napoleon begins his retreat from Moscow, October 19. 

" Terrible passage of the Beresina, November 26, 27. 

1813 Massacre of Frenchtown, Michigan, January 22. 

'• Ten years' war between Russia and Persia ended. 

" Prussia joins Russia and Sweden in the war against Napoleon, February 3. 

" Battle of Lutzen, Germany, May 2. 

" Battle of Bautzen, Germany, May 20. 

" Battle of Vittoria, Spain, June 21. 

" Austria joins the allies in the war against Napoleon, August 10. 

" Battle of Dresden, Saxony, August 26, 27. 

" War with the Creek Indians in Alabama begun, August. — Ended March, 1814. 

" Perry's victory on Lake Erie, September 10. 

" Battle of the Thames, Canada, October 5. 

" Battle of Leipsic, Saxony, October 16, 17, 18. 

" Napoleon begins his retreat from Saxony, October 19. 

1814 Invasion of France by the allied armies, January i. 
" Norway ceded to Sweden by Denmark. 

" Pope Pius VII. restored to his authority in Rome. 

" First capitulation of Paris to the allies, March 31. 

" Napoleon's abdication, April li. 

" Battle of Toulouse, France, April ll. 

" Napoleon arrives in Elba, May 4. 

" Louis XVIII. placed on the throne of France, May 20. 

" First Peace of Paris between France and the allies, May 30. 

" Battle of Chippewa, Canada, July 5. 

" Battle of Lundy's Lane, Canada, July 25. 

" Capture and burning of Washington by the British, August 24. 

'• Battle of Plattsburg, New York, September 11. 

" Unsuccessful British attack on Baltimore, September 12-14. 

" A Congress of the European Powers assembles at Vienna, October 2. 

'• Peace of Ghent between the United States and Great Britain, December 24. 

1815 Battle of New Orleans, Louisiana, January 8. 

Napoleon returns to France and recovers his throne, March. 

" England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia combine against Napoleon. 

" Battles of Ligny and Quatre-Bras, Belgium, June 16. 

•' Battle of Waterloo, Belgium, June 18. 

Commodore Decatur humbles Algiers, June. 

'• Second abdication of Ka-poieon, July 2. 



442 SUPPLEMENT. 

1815 Second capitulation of Paris, July 7. 

" Louis XVIII. restored to the throne of France, July 8. 

" The Germanic Confederation established. 

" The Holy Alliance formed, .September 25. 

" Napoleon banished to .St. Helena, where he arrives October 18. 

" Second Peace of Paris between France and the allies, November 20. 

1816 Lord Exmouth humbles Algiers. 

" Indiana admitted into the American Union. 

1817 Inauguration of President James Monroe, March 4. 

" War with the Seminole and Creek Indians in Georgia and Alabama. 

" Mississippi becomes a State of the American Union. 

" Battle of Chacabaco, Chili, February 12. 

1818 Illinois becomes a State of the American Union. 
" Battle of M.iypu, Chili, April 5. 

1819 Alabama becomes a State of the American Union. 
" Battle of Boyaca, Columbia, August 7. 

" Florida ceded by Spain to the United States. 

1820 Death of George III. of England and accession of George IV, 

" Revolution in Spain and establishment of the Cortes Constitution. 

" Revolution in Portugal and establishment of a liberal constitution. 

" Revolution in Naples suppressed by an Austrian army. 

" Maine becomes a State of the American Union. 

" Missouri Compromise adopted. 

1821 Revolution in Piedmont crushed by Austrian power. 
" Death of Napoleon Bonaparte at St. Helena, May 5. 
" Commencement of the Greek War for Independence, 
" Mexico becomes independent of Spain. 

" Missouri becomes a State of the American Union. 
" Battle of Carabobo, Colombia, June 24. 

1822 The " Monroe Doctrine" promulgated by President Monroe. 
" Don Augustine Iturbide created Emperor of Mexico. 

" Brazil becomes an independent empire. 
" Desolation of Scio by the Turks. 

1823 A French army restores absolutism in Spain. 
" Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, overthrown. 

" Victory and death of Marco Bozzaris, the Greek patriot. 

1824 Death of Louis XVIII. of France and accession of Charles X. 
" First war between the English and the Burmese. 

" A Federal Constitution adopted in Mexico, 
" Battle of Junin, Peru, August 6. 

" Battle of Ayacucho, Peru, and establishment of Spanish American inde- 
pendence, December 9. 
" Lafayette's visit to the United States. 

1825 General Guadalupe Victoria maugurated the tirst President of Mexico, Jan- 

uary I. 
" John Quincy Adams inaugurated the sixth President of the Utiited States, 

March 4. 
" Death of the Czar Alexander I. and accession of Nicholas. 
" War between Russia and Persia. — Ended in 1828. 
" France acknowledges the independence of .San Domingo, 

1826 Capture of Missolonghi, Greece, by the Turks, April, 
" Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, July 4. 
" Massacre of the Janizaries at Constantinople. 

1827 First railroad in the United States built in Massachusetts. 

" Intervention of England, France, and Russia in favor of Greece. 

" Battle of Navarino — annihilation of the Turco-Egyptian fleet, October 20. 

1828 War between Russia and Turkey. 

" Abolition of the Test Act by the British Parliament. 

1829 Catholic Emancipation Act passed by Parliament. 

" Inauguration of President Andrew Jackson, March 4. 



IMPOR TANT E VENTS. 443 

1829 Peace of Andrianople between Russia and Turkey, September 20. 

1830 Death of George IV. of England and accession of William IV. 
" The city of Algiers taken by a French fleet, July 4. 

" Revolution in Paris — dethronement of Charles X., July 27-29. 

" Louis Philippe created Kitig of the French, August 9. 

" Belgium becomes an independent kingdom. 

" Rebellion in Poland against Russian authority, November. 

1831 Suppression of the Polish insurrection, September. 

" Assassination of Count John Capo d'Istria, the Greek President. 

" Abdication of Dom Pedro I. of Brazil and accession of Dom Pedro II. 

" Mehemet All's first rebellion against the Ottoman Porte. 

1832 Civil war in Portugal between Dom Pedro and Dom Miguel. 
" Passage of the First Reform Bill by the British Parliament. 
" Siege and capture of Acre by the Egyptians. 

" Black Hawk War in Illinois. 

" Threatened rebellion in South Carolina. 

1833 Tariff Compromise adopted by the United States Congress. 
« Removal of deposits from the United States Bank. 

" King Otho ascends the throne of Greece. 

" The Sultan of Turkey cedes Syria to the Pacha of Egypt. 

" The British Parliament abolishes slavery in the British West Indies. 

" Death of King Ferdinand VII. of Spain and accession of Isabella II. 

" Civil war begins in Spain between the Christinos and the Carlists. 

1835 Seminole War in Florida begun — Ended in 1842. 
" Texan War for Independence begun. 

" Death of the Emperor Francis I. of Austria and accession of Ferdinand. 

1836 Battle of San Jacinto, Texas— Santa Anna defeated and taken prisoner, 

April 21. 
" Arkansas admitted into the American Union. 

1837 Michigan admitted as a State of the American Union. 
" Inauguration of President Martin Van Buren, March 4. 

" Death of William IV. of England and accession of Victoria. 

" Rebellion in Canada. 

" Osceola, the Seminole chief, made a prisoner. 

1839 Mehemet All's second rebellion against the Sultan of Turkey. 
" Anglo-Indian invasion of Afghanistan. 

1840 England's opium war with China begins. 

" The remains of the Emperor Napoleon I. brought to Paris. 

" Marriage of Queen Victoria to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

" Death of Frederick William III. of Prussia and accession of Frederick 

William IV. 
" Bombardment and capture of Acre, Syria, by the British navy. 

1841 Inauguration of President William Henry Harrison, March 4. 
" Death of President Harrison, April 4. 

" Inauguration of President John Tyler, April 6. 

" Disastrous retreat of the British fiom Cabul, Afghanistan. 

" Capture of Canton, China, by the British. 

1842 Treaty of Nankin between Great Britan and China, August 29. 
" Threatened civil war in Rhode Island. 

1843 Annexation of Scinde and Gwalior to British India. 

1844 The Electro-Magnetic Telegraph first used. 

1S45 Florida admitted into the American Union, March 3. 

" Inauguration of President James Knox Polk, March 4. 

" Annexation of Texas to the United States, July 4. 

" War begun between the British and the Sikhs of the Punjab. 

1846 Repeal of the Corn Laws by the British Parliament. 

'• War begun between the United States and Mexico. 

" Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, Texas, May 8 and 9. 

" Capture of Monterey, Mexico, by General Taylor, September 24. 

" Battle of Bracito, JVlexico, December 25. 



444 



SUPPLEMENT. 



1846 Iowa admitted into the American Union, December. 

1847 Conquest of California by Colonel Fremont. 
" Battle of Buena Vista, Mexico, February 23. 
" Battle of Sacramento, Mexico, February 28. 

" Siege and capture of Vera Cruz, Mexico, by General Scott, March. 

" Battle of Cerro Gordo, Mexico, April 18. 

" Battles of San Antonio, Contreras, and Churubu^co, Mexico, August 20. 

" Battle of Molino del Rey, Mexico, September 8. 

" Battle of Chapultepec, Mexico, September Ij. 

" General Scott entered the city of Mexico in triumph, September 14. 

" The French conquest of Algiers completed by the surrender of Abd el Kader. 

" Catholic rebellion of the Zonderbund in Switzerland crushed. 

1848 Peace of Guadalupe Hidalgo between the United States and Mexico, Feb- 

ruary 2. 

" Gold discovered in California, February. 

" Revolution in Paris — overthrow of Louis Pliillippe, February 22-24. 

" Establishment of the Second French Republic, February 24. 

" Popular movements in the German States, March. 

" First Revolution in Vienna, March. 

" Revolution in Milan, Italy, and expulsion of the Austrians, March. 

" Revolution in Berlin, March. 

" Sicily's revolt against the King of Naples. 

" Revolt of SchleswigHolstein against the King of Denmark. 

" Wisconsin admitted as a State of the American Union, May. 

■' First Communist rising in Paris, May 15. 

" The German National Asseinblv meets at Frankfort, May 18. 

" Slavic insurrection in Prague, Bohemia, June. 

" Great Communist insurrection in Paris, June. 

" The Austrians defeat the Sardinians at Custozza, July 25. 

" Second Revolution in Vienna, October. 

" Siege and fall of Vienna, October. 

" Hungarian rebellion against the Austrian Emperor. 

" Revolution in Rome and flight of Pope Pius IX., November. 

" Establishment of a new Roman Republic, November. 

" Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand of Austria and accession of Francis 

Joseph, December 2. 

" Louis Napoleon Bonaparte inaugurated President of France, December 20. 

1849 Inauguration of President Zachary Taylor, March 5. 

" Renewal of the SchleswigHolstein revolt against Denmark, March. 

" Defeat of the Sardinians by the Austrians at Novara, March 23. 

" Russia aids .-Kustria in suppressing the Hungarian rebellion, June. 

" Pope Pius IX. restored to his authority in Rome by a French army, July. 

" Venice reduced to submission by an Austrian army, August. 

" The Hungarians defeated at Temeswar, August 9. 

" The Hungarian rebellion ended by Gorgey's surrender to the Russians at 

Villages, August 13. 

" Annexation of the Punjab to British India. 

1850 President Taylor's death, July 9. 

" President Millard P'lUmore's inauguration, July 10. 

" Compromise Act passed by the United States Congress, September. 

" Admission of California into the American Union, September. 

185 1 Gold discovered in .Australia. 

" Louis Napoleon's Coup d Etat, December 2. 

1852 Louis Napoleon Emperor of the French, December 2. 
" Second war between the English and the Burmese. 

1853 Marriage of the Emperor Napoleon III. with Eugenie de Montijo, 
" Inauguration of President Franklin Pierce, March 4. 

" War breaks out between Russia and Turkey, October. 

1854 The Kansas-Nebraska Act passed by the United States Congress. 
'• Turkish victories on the Danube. 



IMPORTANT EVENTS. 445 

1854 Alliance of England, France, and Turkey against Russia. 
" Allied expedition to the Crimea. 

" Battle of the Alma, September 20. 

" Siege of Sevastopol commenced, October 17. 

" Battle of Balaklava, October 25. 

" Battle of Inkermann, November 5. 

1855 Death of the Czar Nicholas of Russia and accession of Alexander II. 
•' Sardinia joins the allies in the Crimean War. 

" Fall of Sevastopol, September 9. 

" Civil war in Kansas. 

1S56 Peace of Paris between Russia and the allies, March 30. 

•' War between England and Persia. 

" War of England and France against China. 

1857 Inauguration of President James Buchanan, March 4. 

•' Dred Scott Decision by the United States Chief-Justice, March 6. 

" The Sepoy Mutiny in British India begins, April. 

" Massacres of Delhi and Cawnpore. 

" Siege of Lucknow. 

" Siege and fall of Delhi. 

1858 Capture of Lucknow by Sir Colin Campbell, March 17. 
" Close of the Sepoy Rebellion, June. 

" Capture of Canton, China, by the English. 

" Minnesota admitted into the American Union. 

1859 War breaks out between Austria and Sardinia, April. 
" France joins Sardinia in the war against Austria. 

" Battle of Montebello, Italy, May 20. ~) 

" Battle of Palestro, Italy, May 31. ^^^^^j^^ ^^f^^^^_ 

" Battle of Magenta, Italy, June 4. I 

" Battle of Solferino, Italy, June 24. J 

" Peace of Villa Franca between France and Austria, July II. 

" Russian conquest of Circassia by the capture of Schamyl, August. 

" Oregon admitted into the American Union. 

" War begun between Spain and Morocco, October. 

" John Brown's insurrection in Virginia, October. 

" Execution of John Brown, by the Virginia authorities, December 2. 

i860 General Garibaldi overthrows King Francis II. of Naples. 

" Peace between Spain and Morocco, April. 

" Capture of Pekin, China, by the English and French. 

" Treaty of Tientsin between England, France, and China, October. 

" Secession of South Carolina because of Mr. Lincoln's election, December 20. 

1861 Formation of a Southern Confederacy, February 4. 

" Kansas admitted as a State of the American Union, January 29. 

" King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia created King of Italy. 

" Inauguration of President Abraham Lincoln, March 4. 

" The American Civil War begun by the attack on Fort Sumter, April 12. 

" Battle of Big Bethel, Virginia, June 10. 

" Battle of Romney, West Virginia, June il. 

" Battle of Carthage, Missouri, July 5. 

'• Battle of Rich Mountain, West Virginia, July il. 

" Battle of Bull's Run, Virginia, July 21. 

" Battle of Dug Spring, Missouri, August 2. 

" Battle of Wilson's Creek, Missouri, August 10. 

" Capture of Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, by General Butler and Com- 
modore Stringham, August 29. 

" Battle of Carnifax Ferry, West Virginia, September 12. 

" Capture of Lexington, Missouri, by the Confederates, September 20. 

" Battle of Ball's Bluff, Virginia, October 21. 

" Battle of Belmont, Missouri, November 7. 

" Capture of Port Royal, South Carolina, by Admiral Dupont, November 7. 

" Death of Frederick'William IV. of Prussia, and accession of William I. 



446 SUPPLEMENT. 

1861 Death of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Queen Victoria's husband. 

" Allied English, Frencii. and Spanish expedition against Mexico, December 

1862 Battle of Mill Spring, Kentucky, January 19. 

" Capture of Roanoke Island, North Carolina, by General Burnside and Com- 
modore Goldsborough, February 8. 

" Capture of Fort Donelson, Tennessee, by General Grant, February 16. 

" Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 6, 7, and 8. 

" Fight between the Merrimac and the Monitor, March 9. 

" Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee, April 6 and 7. 

" Capture of Island No 10, Mississippi river, by Commodore Foote, April 7. 

" Capture of Vera Cruz, Mexico, by the Spaniards, April. 

" Capture of New Orleans, Louisiana, by tiie Union forces, April 28. 

" Evacuation of Yorktown, Virginia, by the Confederates, May 3. 

" Battle of Williamsburg, Virginia, May 5. 

" Evacuation of Norfolk, Virginia, by the Confederates, May 10. 

" Capture of Natchez, Mississippi, by Admiral Farragut, May 12. 

" Capture of Corinth, Mi.ssissippi, by General Halleck, May 29. 

" Battle of Fair Oaks, Virginia, May 31 and June i. 

" Capture of Memphis, Tennessee, by Commodore Davis, June 6. 

" The Seven Days' Battles before Richmond, Virginia, June 25-July I. 

" Garibaldi's defeat at Aspromonte, Italy, August 29. 

" Second battle of Bull's Run, August 29 and 30. 

" Battle of South Mountain, Maryland, September 14. 

" Surrender of Harper's Ferry, Virginia, to the Confederates, September 15. 

" Battle of Antietam, Maryland, September 17. 

" Battle of luka, Mississippi, September 19. 

" Battle of Corinth, Mississippi, October 3, 4, and 5. 

" Battle of Perryville, Kentucky, October 8. 

" Revolution in Greece and flight of King Otho, October. 

" Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, December 13. 

1863 President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, January I. 

" Battle of Murfreesboro', Tennessee, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863. 

" Emancipation of the Russian serfs, February i. 

" Prince George of Denmark becomes King of Greece. 

" Battle of Chanceliorsville, Virginia, May 2 and 3. 

" Capture of Puebia, Mexico, by the French, May 18. 

" West Virginia becomes a State of the American Union, June i. 

" Capture of the city of Mexico by the French, June 10. 

" Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, July i, 2, and 3. 

" Capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi, by General Grant, July 4. 

" Capture of Port Hudson, Louisiana, by General Banks, July 8. 

" Siege of Charleston, South Carolina, by the National forces. 

" Battle of Chickamauga, Tennessee, September 19 and 20. 

" Battle of Chattanooga, Tennessee, November 23, 24, and 25. 

" Siege of Knoxville, Tennessee, by the Confederates, November, 

" Insurrection in Poland against Russian authority suppressed. 

1864 War of Prussia and Austria against Denmark begun, February. 
" Capture of Duppel, Holstein, by the Prussians. April 18. 

" Battles of the Wilderness and .Spottsylvania, Virginia, May 5-12. 

" Siege of Petersburg and Richmond, Virginia, by General Grant. 

" Sherman's campaign and siege of Atlanta, Georgia. 

" The Alabama sunk by the A'earsarge, June 15. 

" The Archduke Maximilian of Austria proclaimed Emperor of Mexico, 

" War begun between Spain and Peru. 

" Capture of Alsen, Holstein, by the Prussians, July 9. 

" Early's invasion of Maryland, July. 

" Burning of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, by the Confederates, July 30. 

" Capture of Atlanta by General Sherman, September 2. 

" Sheridan's victories at Winchester, Fisher's Hill, and Cedar Creek, Virginia. 
September 19 and 22, and October 19. 



IMPOR TANT E VENTS. 44 7 

1864 Nevada admitted into the American Union, October 31. 

" Sherman's march through Georgia and capture of Savannah, November 
and December. 

" Battle of Nashville, Tennessee, December 15. 

" Peace of Vienna between Austria, Prussia, and Denmark, October 3. 

1S65 Capture of Fort Fisher, North Carolina, by General Terry, January 15. 

" Evacuation of Charleston, South Carolina, by the Confederates, February 18. 

" Evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond by Lee's army, April 2. 

" Lee's surrender, at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, Aprd 9. 

" Assassination of President Lincoln, April 14. 

" Inauguration of President Andrew Johnson, April 15. 

" Surrender of Johnston's army in North Carolina, April 26. 

•' Capture of Jefferson Davis, near Irwinsville, Georgia, May lO. 

" End of the civil war in the United States, May. 

" War between Spain and Chili. 

" War of Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Confederation against Paraguay 
begun. 

«« Abolition of slavery in the United States, December. 

1866 The Seven Weeks' War of Prussia and Italy against Austria begins, June 14. 
" Battle of Custozza, Italy, June 24. 

" Battle of Sadowa, Bohemia, July 3. 

" The Atlantic Telegraph Cable successfully laid, July. 

" Peace of Prague between Austria and Prussia, August 23. 

" The North German Confederation established. 

" Peace of Vienna between Austria and Italy, October 3. 

" The French forces under Marshal Bazaine evacuate Mexico, December. 

1867 Nebraska admitted into the American Union, January 15. 

" The Dominion of Canada established by the British Parliament, February. 

" Purchase of Alaska from Russia by the United States, March. 

" Austria-Hungary reorganized. 

" Capture and execution of the Emperor Maximilian at Queretaro, Mexico, 

June 19. 
" Passage of the Second Reform Bill by the British Parliament, AugusL 
" Garibaldi's movement on Rome, September. 
" War begun between Great Britain and Abyssinia, November. 

1868 King Theodore of Abyssinia defeated and killed by the English, April. 
" President Johnson's impeachment, trial, and acquittal, February — May. 
« Revolution in Spain and flight of Queeji Isabella II., September. 

" Russia's war with Bokhara. 

" Insurrection in Cuba against Spain. 

1869 President Ulysses S. Grant's inauguration, March 4. 

" The Pacific Railroad in the United States completed, May. 
" Disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland, August. 

1870 Enfranchisement of the colored population in the United States, March. 
" President Lopez of Paraguay defeated and killed by the Brazilians. 

" Prince Leopold of HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen, a candidate for the crown of 
Spain, July 3. 

" France declares war against Prussia, July 15. 

" Prussian invasion of France, July 30. 

" Skirmish at Saarbrucken, August 2. 

" Battle of Weissembourg, August 4 

" Battles of Woerth and Forbach, August 6. 

" Battles of Courcelles, Vionville, and Gravelotte, August 14, 16, 18. 

" Battle of Sedan, September I. 

" Surrender of MacMahon's army and of Napoleon III., September 2. 

" Revolution in Paris and establishment of the Third French Republic, Sep- 
tember 4. 

" Investment and siege of Paris begun by the Germans, September 16. 

" Italian military occupation of Rome, September 20. 

" Surrender of Strasburg to the Germans, after a siege, September 27. 



448 SUPPLEMENT. 

1870 Baraine's surrender of Metz to the Germans, October 27. 

" The Duke of Aosta elected King of Spain with the title of Amadeus I., 

November 17. 

" Assassination of General Prim, the Spanish statesman, December 27. 

1871 King William of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany, January 19. 

" Surrender of Paris to the Germans, after a fierce bombardment, January 27. 

" Peace of Versailles between France and Germany, March 2. 

" Communist insurrection breaks out in Paris, March 17. 

" Capture of Paris by the French Government forces, after a vigorous siege 

and bombardment. May 27. 

" End of the Paris Rebellion, May 28. 

" Rome becomes the capital of Italy, July 3. 

1872 Settlement of the Alabama Claims dispute between the United States and 

Great Britain, September. 

1873 Death of the ex-Emperor Napoleon III., January 9. 

'• Abdication of King Amadeus of Spain and establishment of a Spanish Re- 
public, February II. 

•' Resignation of President Thiers of France and election of Marshal Mac- 
Mahon as President of France, May 24. 

" Russia's war with Khiva. 

" Holland's war with the Atcheenese of Sumatra. 

" War with the Modoc Indians in Oregon, April and May. 

" Financial crisis in the United States, September. 

" Dispute between Church and State in Germany. 

" Carlist and Intransigente insurrections in Spain. 

" War between the British and the Ashantees begun August. 

1874 General Pavia's Coup d'Etat in Spain, January 2. 

" Fall of Cartagena and end of the Intransigente insurrection in Spain, Janu- 

uary 14. 

" Capture of Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, by the British, February. 

" Civil war in Arkansas, April and May. 

" Attempted assassination of Prince Bismarck, July 14. 

" Insurrection in Louisiana, September. 

" Iceland's millennial. 

" Prince Alfonso proclaimed King of Spain, December 31. 

1875 Centennial anniversaries of Revolutionary events in the United States. 
" Rebellion in Herzegovina and Bosnia against the Turks, July. 

" Russia's war with Khokand. 

1876 Suppression of the Carlist insurrection in Spain, March. 

" The Centennial International Exhibition at Philadelphia, May 10 — Novem- 
ber 10. 

" The Centennial Anniversary of American Independence, July 4. 

" Colorado admitted into the American Union, July. 

" Visit of Dom Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, to the United States. 

" War with the .Sioux Indians in Montana. 

" The TurcoServian War, July, August, and September. 

" A disputed Presidential election in the United States. 

1S77 Queen Victoria proclauned Empress of India, January I. 

" President Rutherford B. Hayes's inauguration, March 5. 

" War breaks out between Russia and Turkey, April. 

" Russian invasion of Turkey, April. ' 

" War with the Nez Perce Indians in Idaho, June-September. 

" Labor riots in the United States, July. 

" Defeat of the Russians in Armenia, June and Juiy. 

" Defeats of the Russians at Plevna, July 30 and September 12. 

" Capture of Kars by the Russians, after a spirited siege, November 18. 

" Capture of Plevna by the Russians, after a vigorous siege, December lO. 

1878 Death of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, and accession of Humbert, Jan- 
uary 9. 

" Death of Pope Pius IX. February 7> ^nd accession of Leo XIII. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 449 

1878 Peace of San Stefano between Russia and Turkey, March 2. 

" The Emperor WilHam of Germany wounded by a Socialist, June 2. 

" A Congress of European Powers meets at Berlin, June 13. 

" The Treaty of Berlin, July 13. 

" Austrian Hungary acquires Bosnia and Herzegovina, after a desperate 

struggle with the Bosnians, August and September. 

" War with the Bannack Indians in Oregon. 

«' Activity of the Socialists in Germany and the Nihilists in Russia. 

" Passage of a bill for the suppression of Socialism by the German Reichstag. 

" War between Great Britain and Afghanistan, November and December. 

1879 Resignation of President MacMahon of France and election of Jules Grevy 

as President of France, January 30. 
" War between the British and the Zulus of South Africa. 
" Activity of the Russian Nihilists. 
" Renewal of the Anglo- Afghan war, September. 
" War with the Ute Indians in Colorado, October. 
" War of Peru and Bolivia against Chili. 

1880 Chilian victories in Bolivia and Peru. 
" Agrarian agitation in Ireland. 

" Russia's war with the Turkomans. 

1881 Successful revolt of the Transvaal, in South Africa, against the British. 
" Chili triumphant over Bolivia and Peru. 

" Inauguration of President James A. Garfield, March 4. 

" Assassination of the Czar Alexander II. of Russia, March 13. 

« Accession of the Czar Alexander III., March 14. 

" French seizure of Tunis, May. 

«« President Garfield shot by an assassin, July 2. 

«« Passage of the Irish Land Act by the British Parliament, August. 

«« Death of President Garfield, September 19. 

" Inauguration of President Arthur, September 20. 

" The Yorktown Centennial, October 19. 

1882 Assassination of Lord Frederick Cavendish and Under-Secretary Burke, 

May 6. 
" Arabi Pacha's rebellion against the Khedive of Egypt. 
" Bombardment of .\lexandria, Egypt, by the British navy, July II. 
" The Egyptian rebels under Arabi Pacha overthrown by the British at Tel- 

el-kebir, September 13. 

1883 French war in Madagascar. 
" French war in Tonquin. 

»• El Mahdi's victory over the Egyptians, November. 

«« Hicks Pacha defeated and killed by the Egyptian rebels, December 3. 

1884 Baker Pacha defeated by the Egyptian rebels, February 4. 

" Sinkat taken and its garrison massacred by the Egyptain rebels, February 1 1. 

'« Tokar taken by the Egyptian rebels, February 21. 

" General Graham defeats the Egyptian rebels at Teb (February 29) and at 

Tamanieb (March 13 and 27). 
" Massacre of the garrisons of Shendy and Berber by the Egyptian rebels 

(April 15 and May 26). 
« Capture of Kee-lung, China, by the French navy, August 5. 

29 



45° 



SUPPLEMENT. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



KINGS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 

1st Dynasty. — 2^8 or 26j years. — Be- 

ginning 2yoo B. C, 
Menes. 
Athothis. 
Kenkenes. 
Uenephes. 
Usaphaedus. 
Miebidus. 
Seniempses. 
Bieneches. 

j(/ Dynasty. — 2g8 or 214 years. 
Necherophes. 
Tosorthrus. 
Tyreis. 
Mesochris. 
Suphis. 
Tosertasis. 
Aches. 
Suphuiis. 
Kerpheres. 

4.th Dynasty — 220 years. 
Soris. 

Suphis II. or Cheops. 
Suphis III. 
Mencheres. 
Ratoises. 
Bicheris. 
Sibercheres. 
Thamphthis. 

Contemporary Dynasties. — 2440 to 

2220 B. C. 
Branch Dynasty. — Thinite. — ^02 
years. 
Boehus, or Behus. 
Kceechus. 
Binothns. 
Tlas. 
Sethenes. 
• Chores. 
Nephercheres. 
Sesochris. 
Chereres. 

Ch icf Dyn asty. — Memph ite. — 21 S 
ears. 
Sori.s. 
Suphus X. 
Suphus XI. 
Mencheres. 
Ratoises. 
Bicheris. 
Sebercheres. 
Thampthis. 



Branch Dynasty. — 218 years. 
Usercheres. 
Sephres. 
Nephercheres. 
Sisires. 
Cheres. 
Rathures. 

Mencheres. * 

Tancheres. 
Onnus. 

Contemporary Dynasties. — Memphite 

Dynasty. — 14J years. 
Othoes. 
Phios. 

Methosuphis. 
Phiops. 

Menthesuphis. 
Nitocris. 

Elephantine Dynasty. 
Achthoes. 
Muntopt I. 
Muntopt II. 
Herocleopolt. 

Theban Dynasty. — 16 kings. 
Ammenemes. 

Contemporary Dynasties. — 2080-Tgoc 

B. C. 

1 2th Dynasty. — Theban. 

Sesonchosis (46 years). 
Ammenemes II. (38 years). 
Sesostris (48 years). 
Lamares (8 years). 
Ameres (8 years). 
Ammenemes III. (8 years). 
Skenniophris (4 years). 

ijth Dynasty — Theban. 

14th Dynasty — Xoite. — 76 Kings — 484 

years. 

i^th Dynasty — Shepherd Kings. 
Salatis (19 years). 
Bnon (44 years). 
Apachnas (36 years). 
Apophis (61 years). 
Jannas (50 years). 
Asses (49 years). 

ibth Dynasty. — Shep 'lerd Kings. — jo 
Kings in §18 years 

B. C. iSth Dynasty. 

1525 Amos, Ames, or Aahmes. 
1499 AnAunoph I. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



451 



1478 Thothmes I, 

Amenset. 

Thothmes II. 

Thothmes III. !- Dates uncertain, 

Amunoph II. 

Thothmes IV. 
1400 Amunoph III. 

and Mautmva. 
1364 Horus. 
1327 Resitot. 

B. C. igth Dynasty. 

\yza, Rameses I. 
1322 Sesostris. 

Rameses II. 1 

Amenephthes. \ Dates uncertain. 

Sethos II.. J 

20th Dynasty. 
Rameses III. - 
Rameses IV. 
Rameses V. 
Rameses VI. 
Rameses VII. 
Rameses VI 1 1. 
Rameses IX. 
Rameses X. 
Rameses XI. 
Rameses XII. 
Rameses XIII. 
Rameses XIV. 
Rameses XV. 

21 St Dynasty. — B. C. 1085-1059 

Smendes. 

Psusennes I. 

Nephercheres. 

Amenephthes. 

Osochor. 

Psinaches. 

Psusennes II. 



Dates uncertain. 



Dates uncertain. 



B. C. 

993 
972 

957 
956 
933 
910 
881 



22d Dynasty. 
Sheshonk, or Shishak. 
Osorkon I. 
Pehor. 
Osorkon II. 
Sheshonk II. 
Sheshonk III. 
Takelot II. 



B. C. 2jd Dynasty. 

847 Petubastes. 

807 Osorkon IV. 

799 Psammus. 

789 Zet. 

B. C. 24th Dynasty. 

758 Bocchoris. 

B. C. 25th Dynasty. 

724 Sebaco I. 



704 Sebaco II. 

690 Tehrah, or Tirkakeh (to 665 B. C.) 

B. C. 26th Dynasty, 

664 Psammetichus. 

610 Necho. 

594 Psammis. 

588 Apries, or Uaphris. 

569 Amasis. 

525 Psammenitus. 

ASSYRIAN KINGS. 
B. C. Noted Khtgs during 2d period. 
Asshur-danin-il I., reign ended B. 

C. 909. 
909 Iva-lush III. 
8S9 Tiglathi-nin II. 
886 Asshur-idanni pal I. 

(Sardanapalus). 
858 Shalmaneser II. 
823 Shamas-iva. 
810 Iva-lush IV. 

(Husband of Sammuramit or 
Semiramis). 
781 Shalmaneser III. 
771 Asshur-danin-il II. 
753 Asshur-likh-khus. 

B. C. Kings of the New, or Lower 

Assyrian Empire. 
745 Tiglath-Pileser II. 
727 Shalmaneser IV. 
721 Sargon. 
705 Sennacherib. 
680 Esarhaddon. 
667 Asshur-bani-pal. 
647 Saracus (to 625 B. C.) 

LATER BABYLONIAN KINGS. 

B. C. 

747 Nabonassar. 
733 Nad is. 

731 Chinzinus and Porus. 
726 Elulaeus. 

721 Merodach-baladaw (deposed). 
709 Arceanus (Assyrian viceroy). 
703 Merodach-baladaw restored. 
702 Belibus. 
699 Assaranadius. 
693 Regibelus (Assyrian viceroy). 
692 Mesesionordachus (Assyrian vice- 
roy). 
688 Period of Anarchy. 
680 Esarhaddon. 
667 Saosduchinus (viceroy). 
647 Cmneladanus. 
625 Nabopolassar. 
604 Nebuchadnezzar. 
561 Evil-merodach. 



452 



SUPPLEMENT. 



559 Neriglissar. 

555 Laborosoarchod. 

555 Nabonadius (to 53S B. C.) 

MERMNAD/E OF LYDIA. 
B. C. According to Herodotus. 
724 Cyges. 
686 Ardys. 
637 Sadyattes. 
625 Alyattes. 
558 Croesus (to 554 B. C.) 

B. C. Accordhig to Eusebiits. 
698 Cyges. 
662 Ardys. 
624 Sadyattes. 

609 Aiyaties. 

560 Croesus (to 546 B. C.) 

HEBREW KINGS. 
B. C. The United Monarchy. 
1095 Saul. 
1055 David. 
1015 Solomon (to 975 B. C.) 

B. C. Kings of Judah. 

975 Rehoboam. 

958 Abijah. 

955 Asa. 

914 Jehoshaphat. 

8S9 Jehoram. 

885 Ahaziah. 

884 Athaliah. 

878 Joash, or Jehoahez. 

839 Amaziah. 

810 Uzziah, or Ahaziah. 

758 Jotham. 

742 Ahaz. 

726 Hezekiah. 

698 Manasseh. 

643 Anion. 

641 Josiah. 

610 Jehoahaz. 
610 Jehoiakim. 
599 Jehoiachin. 

599 Zedekiah (carried captive 
Babylon 586 B. C.) 

B. C. Kings of Israel. 

975 Jeroboam. 

954 Nadab. 

953 Baasha. 

930 Elah. 

929 Zimri. 

925 Omri, 

918 Ahab. 

897 Ahaziah. 

896 Jehoram. 

884 Jehu. 



857 Jehoahez. 
841 Jehoash. 
825 Jeroboam II. 
784 An interregnum. 
773 Zachariah. 
772 Shallum. 
772 Menahem. 
761 Pekaiah. 
759 Pekiih. 

730 Hoshea (carried captive to Assyria 
721 B. C.) 

MEDIAN AND PERSIAN KINGS. 

B. C. Kings of Media. 

708 Dejoces. 

656 Phraortes. 

635 Cyaxares. 

595 Astyages (deposed 559 B. C.) 

B. C. Kings of Persia. 

559 Cyrus the Great. 

529 Cambyses. 

521 Smerdis. 

521 Darius Hystaspes. 

485 Xerxes the Great. 

464 Artabanus. 

464 Artaxerxes Longimanus. 

425 Xerxes II. 

424 Sogdianus. 

423 Darius Nothus. 

404 Artaxerxes Mnemon. 

358 Artaxerxes Ochus. 

337 Arses. 

336 Darius Codomannus (murdered in 
330 B. C.j 



KINGS OF MACEDON. 



B. a 



795 

729 
684 
640 



540 
500 
454 
433 
399 
394 
393 
369 
360 

364 
360 

336 



.} 



Dates uncertain. 



Caranus. 
Coenus. 
Thurymas. 
Perdiccas I. 

ArgKus. 
Philip I. 

Alecl'a?}^''^*^^""^"'^'"- 

Amyntas I. 

Alexander I. 

Perdiccas II. 

Archelaus. 

Orestes. 

Pausanias. 

Amyntas II. 

Alexander II. 

Ptolemy. 

Perdiccas III. 

Piiilip the Great. 

Alexander the Great. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



453 



324 Philip Aridaeus. 

317 Cassander. 

298 Philip IV. 

297 Alexander IV. and Antipater. 

294 Demetrius I. 

287 Pyrrhus. 

286 Lysimachus of Thrace. 

281 Ptolemy Ceraunus. 

280 Meleager. 

278 Sosthenes. 

277 Antigonus Gonatus. 

239 Demetrius II. 

229 Antigonus Doson. 

220 Philip V. 

178 Perseus (to 168 B. C.) 

THE PTOLEMIES OF EGYPT. 

B. C. 

323 Ptolemy Lagus, or Soter. 

283 Ptolemy Philadelphus. 

247 Ptolemy Euergetes. 

222 Ptolemy Philopater. 
205 Ptolemy Epiphanes. 
181 Ptolemy Philometer. 
146 Ptolemy Physcon. 
117 Ptolemy Lathy rus. 

107 Ptolemy Alexander I. and Cleo- 
patra I. 

89 Ptolemy Lathyrus restored. 

81 Ptolemy Alexander II. and Cleo- 
patra I. 

80 Ptolemy Auletes. 

58 Berenice and Tryphsena. 

55 Ptolemy Auletes restored. 

5 1 Ptolemy and Cleopatra II. 

46 Cleopatra II. and the younger 

Ptolemy. 
(Egypt a Roman province 30 B. C.) 

THE SELEUCID^ OF SYRIA. 

B. C. 

312 Seleucus Nicator. 
2S0 Antiochus Soter. 
261 Antiochus Theos. 
246 Seleucus Callinicus. 
226 Seleucus Ceraunus. 

223 Antiochus the Great. 
187 Seleucus Philopater. 
175 Antiochus Epiphanes. 
164 Antiochus Eupater. 
162 Demetrius Soter. 

150 Alexander Bala. 
146 Demetrius Nicator (deposed). 
137 Antiochus Sidetes. 
128 Demetrius Nicator restored. 
125 Antiochus Grypus. 
1 1 1 Antiochus Cyzicenus. 
95 Seleucus IV. 



94 Antiochus Eusebes. 

85 Philip. 

83 Tigranes of Armenia. 

69 Antiochus Asiaticus. 

THE MACCABEES OF JUDAEA. 
B. C. 

165 Judas Maccabeus. 
160 Jonathan Maccabeus. 
143 Simon Maccabeus. 
135 John Hyrcanus I. 
106 Aristobulus I. 

70 John Hyrcanus II. 
67 Aristobulus II. 

40 Antigonus. 

37 Herod the Great (the Idumaean), 
to B. C. 4. 

THE ARSACIDiE OF PARTHIA. 

B. C. 

250 Arsaces. 

217 Arsaces Artabainis. 

156 Mithridates I. ' 

58 Orodes. I. 

37 Phraortes. 

A.n. 

13 Phraaticus. 

14 Orodes II. 

15 Vonones I. 

18 Artabanus III. 

35 Tiridatus. 

45 Vardanus. 

45 Gotarzes. 

50 Vologeses I. 

60 Vonones II. 

81 Artabanus IV. 

90 Pacorus. 
106 Khoroe I. 
117 Parthanaspates. 
134 Vologeses II. 
189 Vologeses III. 

212 Artabanus V. (Empire ended 226 
A. D.) 

KINGS OF ROME. 
B. C. 

753 Romulus. 
715 Numa Pompilius. 
672 Tullus Hostilius. 
640 Ancus Martins. 
616 Tarquin the Elder. 
578 Servius TuUius. 
534 Tarquin the Proud. (Driven away 
in 510 B. C.) 

ROMAN EMPERORS, 



B. C. 

30 Augustus. 
A. D. 

14 Tiberius. 



The Ccesars. 



454 



SUPPLEMENT. 



37 Caligula. 
41 Claudius. 

54 Nero. 

68 Galba. 

69 Otho. 

69 Vitellius. 

70 Vespasian. 
79 Titus. 

81 Domitian. 

The Five Good Emperors. 

96 Nerva. 

98 Trajan. 
117 Adrian. 
135 Antoninus Pius. 
163 Marcus Aurelius. 

Period of Decline 
180 Commodus. 

192 Pertinax. 

193 Didius Julianus. 
193 Septimius Severus. 
211 Caracalla. 

217 Macrinus. 

218 Heliogabalus. 

222 Alexander Severus. 

235 Maximin. 

238 Pupienus and Balbinus. 

238 Gordian. 

244 Philip the Arabian. 

249 Decius. 

251 Gallus. 

254 yEmilianus. 

254 Valerian. 

261 Gallienus. 

268 Flavins Claudius. 

270 Aurelian. 

275 Tacitus. 

276 Florian. 

277 Probus. 

282 Carus. 

283 Carinas and Numerian. 

284 Diocletian and Maxiniian. 

305 Constantius and Galerius. 

306 Constantine the Great. 
336 Constantius II. 

361 Julian the Apostate. 

363 Jovian. 

Rotnan Emperors of the West. 

364 Valentinian I. 
375 Gratian. 

383 Maxiniian. 
383 Valentinian II. 
388 Eugenius. 

394 Theodosius the Great. 

395 Honorius. 

423 Valentinian III. 



455 Maximus. 
455 Avitus. 
457 Marjorian. 
461 Severus. 
467 Anthemius. 

472 Olybrius. 

473 Glycerius. 

473 Nepos. 

475 Romulus Augustulus (deposed in 
476.) 
THE SASSANID/E OF PERSIA. 
A. D. 

226 Artaxerxes I. 
240 Sapor I. 

272 Hormisdas I. 

273 Varanes I. 
277 Varanes II. 

293 Varanes III. 

294 Narses. 

301 Hormisdas XL 
309 Sapor II. 
380 Artaxerxes II. 
385 Sapor III. 
390 Varanes IV. 
404 Yezdejird I. 
420 Varanes V. 
440 Yezdejird II. 

457 Hormisdas III. 

458 Feroze. 
484 Pallas. 

486 Kobad (deposed). 
497 Jamaspes. 
497 Kobad restored. 
531 Khosrou the Great 
379 Hormisdas IV. 
591 Khosrou II. 

628 Siroes. 

629 Artaxerxes III. 

630 Purandokt. 

631 Shenendeh. 
631 Arzendokt. 

631 Kesra. 

632 Ferokhdad. 

632 Yezdejird III. (murdered in 651). 

GREEK EMPERORS. 
A. D. Different Races. 

364 Valens. 

379 Theodosius the Great. 

395 Arcadius. 

408 Theodosius II. 

450 Marcian. 

457 Leo I., the Thracian. 

474 Leo II., the younger. 
474 Zeno the Isaurian. 

491 Anastasius I., the Illyrian. 
518 Justin I. 
527 Justinian I. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



455 



565 Justin II. 

578 Tiberius II. 

582 Maurice the Cappadocian. 

602 Phocas. 

610 Heraclius. 

641 Constantine III. (Heracleonus). 

641 Constans II. 

668 Constantine IV., Pogonatus. 

685 Justinian II. (deposed). 

695 Leontius. 

698 Tiberius III., Aspimar. 

705 Justinian II. restored. 

711 Philippicus Bardanes. 

713 Anastasius II. 

716 Theodosius III. 

Is auric Race. 

718 Leo III. the Isaurian. 

741 Constantine V. 

775 Leo IV. 

780 Constantine VI. and Irene. 

792 Irene, Empress. 

802 Nicephorus I., Logothetes. 

811 Stauracius. 

8u Michael I. 

813 Leo V. the Armenian. 

820 Michael II. the Stammerer. 

829 Theophilus. 

842 Michael III., Porphyrogenitus. 

Macedotiian Race. 
867 Basil I., the Macedonian. 
886 Leo VI., the Philosopher. 
911 Alexander and Constantine VII., 
Porphyrogenitus. 

919 Romanus Lecapenus and his sons. 

920 Christopher and his sons. 

928 Stephen and Constantine VIII. 

945 Constantine VIII. alone. 

959 Romanus II. 

963 Nicephorus II., Phocas. 

969 John I., Zimisces. 

976 Basil II. and Constantine IX. 

1028 Romanus III., Argyropulus. 

1034 Michael IV., the Paphlagonian. 

1041 Michael V., Calaphates. 

1042 Constantine X., Monomachus, and 

Zoe. 
1054 Theodora. 

1056 Michael VI., Stratiotes. 

The Cofuneni. 

1057 Isaac I., Comnenus. 
1059 Constantine XL, Ducas. 

1067 Eudocia and Romanus Diogenes. 

107 1 Michael VII., Parapinaces. 

1078 Nicephorus III. 

1081 Alexis I., Comnenus. 

1 1 18 John Comnenus. 

1 143 Manuel I., Comnenus. 



1 180 Alexis II., Comnenus. 
1 183 Andronicus I., Comnenus. 
1185 Isaac II., Angelus Comnenus. 
1 195 Alexis III., Angelus, the Tyrant. 

1203 Isaac II., and Alexis IV. 

1204 Alexis v., Ducas. 

French or Latin Emperors. 
1204 Baldwin I. (of Flanders). 
1206 Henry I. 
1216 Peter de Courtenay. 

1 221 Robert de Courtenay. 

1228 Baldwin II. (Latin dynasty ended 
in 1261.) 

Greek Emperors at Nice, 

1204 Theodore Lascaris I. 

1222 John Ducas Vataces. 
1255 Theodore Lascaris II. 

1259 John Lascaris. 

1260 Michael Paleologus. 

The Greek Empire restored at Constan- 
tinople under the Paleologi. 

1 26 1 Michael VII., Paleologus. 
1282 Andronicus II., the Elder. 
1328 Andronicus III., the Younger. 
1 34 1 John Paleologus I. (deposed.) 
1347 John Cantacuzenus. 

1355 John Paleologus restored. 

1391 Manuel II., Paleologus. 

1425 John Paleologus II. 

1448 Constantine Paleologus XIV. 

(killed and empire ended by the 

Turks, 1453.) 

GREEK EMPERORS OF TREBI- 

ZOND. 
A.D. 



1204 


Alexis Comnenus. 


12^2 


Andronicus I. 


1235 
1238 


John I. 
Manuel I. 


1263 


Andronicus II. 


1266 
1280 
1285 


George. 

John II. (deposed.) 

Theodora. 


1285 John II. restored. 
1297 Alexis 11. 
1330 Andronicus III. 


1332 


Manuel II. 


1332 


Basil. 


1340 
1341 


Irene. 
Anna. 


1343 
1344 
1349 
1390 


John III. 
Michael. 
Alexis in. 
Manuel III. 


1417 


Alexis IV. 



456 



SUPPLEMENT. 



1446 John IV. (Colo- Joannes.) 
1458 David. (Empire conquered by 
Turks, 1 46 1.) 

OSTROGOTHIC KINGS OF 
ITALY. 
A. D. 

476 Odoacer^the Herulian. 
^.93 Theodoiic the Ostrogoth. 
526 Atlialaric. 

534 Theodatus. 
536 Vitiges. 

540 Theodebald. 

541 Totila. 

552 Tejas (killed in battle 555.) 

LOMBARD KINGS OF NORTH- 
ERN ITALY. 
A. D. 
568 Alboin. 
573 Cleoph. 
575 Autharis. 
591 Agilulph. 
615 Adaloald. 
625 Arioald. 
636 Rotharis. 

652 Rodoald. 

653 Aribert I. 

661 Bertharit and Godebert. 

662 Grimoald. 
671 Bertharit. 
686 Cunibert. 

700 Luitbert. 

701 Ragimbert. 
701 Aribert II. 
712 Ansprand. 
712 Luitprand. 
744 Hildebrand. 
744 Rachis. 
749 Astolph. 

756 Desiderius (deposed in 771). • 

VANDAL KINGS OF AFRICA. 
A. D. 
429 Genseric. 

477 Hunneric. 
484 Gundamund. 
496 Thrasimund. 
523 Hilderic. 

531 Gelimer (kingdom ended 534.) 

SUEVIC KINGS IN SPAIN. 
A. D. 

409 Hermenric. 

438 Rechila. 

448 Rechiarius. 

457 Maldras. 

460 Frumarius. 

464 Remismund. 

550 Carriaric. 



559 Theodomir. 

569 Mir. 

582 Eboric. 

553 Andeca (kingdom ended 584). 

VANDAL KINGS IN SPAIN. 
A. D. 

409 Gunderic. 
425 Genseric (passed into Africa 529). 

VISIGOTHIC KINGS OF SPAIN. 

A. D. 

411 Ataulfo. 

415 Sigerico 

415 Wallia. 

420 Theodoric I, 

451 Thorismund 

452 Theodoric 11. 
466 Euric. 

483 Alaric II. 

506 Gesalric. 

511 Theodoric III. 

522 Almeric. 

331 Theudis. 

548 Theudisela. 

549 Agila. 

554 Atanagildo. 

567 Liuva I. 

568 Leuvigildo. 
586 Recaredo I. 
601 Liuva II. 
603 Witteric. 
610 Gundemar. 
612 Sisebert. 
621 Recaredo II. 
621 Suintila. 
631 Sisenando. 
636 Chitilla. 
640 Tulga. 

6.j,a Cindasuinto. 
652 Recesuinto. 
672 Wamba. 
680 Evigio. 
689 Egica. 
698 Witiza. 

7 1 1 Roderic, or Rodrego (defeated by 
Saracens and drowned in 712). 

THE POPES 
A. D. 

42 St. Peter (crucified). 

66 St. Clement I. 

78 St. Cletus (martyred). 

91 St. Clement II. (abdicated). 
100 St. Evaristus (martyred). 
109 St. Alexander I. (martyred). 
119 St. Sixtus I. (manyred). 
127 St. Telesphorus (martyred). 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



457 



139 St. Hyginus. 


537 


142 St. Pius I. (martyred). 


555 


157 St. Anicetus. 


560 


168 St. Soterus (martyred). 


573 


177 St. Eleuthenus. 


574 


193 St. Victor I. (martyred). . 


578 


202 St. Zephyrinus. 


590 


219 St. Calixtus I. (martyred). 


604 


222 A vacancy. 


606 


223 St. Urban I. (beheaded). 


607 


230 St. Pontianus (banished). 


614 


235 St. Anterus (manyred). 


617 


236 St. Fabian (martyred). 


625 


250 A vacancy. 


639 


251 St. Cornelius. 


640 


252 St. Lucms I. (martyred). 


640 


253 St. Stephen I. (martyred.) 


642 


257 St. Sixtus II. (martyred.) 


649 


258 A vacancy. 


654 


259 St. Dionysius. 


657 


269 St. Feiix I. (died in prison.) 


672 


275 St. Eutychianus. 


676 


283 St. Caius. 


678 


296 St. Marcellinu? 


682 


304 A vacancy. 


683 


30S St. Marcellus (banished.) 


684 


310 St. Eusebius. 


685 


311 St. Milchiades. 


686 


314 St. Sylvester I. 


687 


336 St. Marcus. 


701 


337 St. JuUus I. 


705 


352 Liberius (banished.) 


708 


355 Felix II., anti-pope. 


708 


358 Liberms restored. 


7'5 


358 Felix II. agam. 


731 


359 Liberius again (martyred.) 


741 


3fa6 St. Damasus I. 


752 


367 Ursinus (banished.) 




3S4 Siricius. 


757 


398 St. Anastasius I. 


768 


402 St. Innocent I. 


772 


417 St. Zozimus. 


795 


418 St. Boniface I. 


816 


422 St. Celestine I. 


817 


432 Sixtus III.' 


824 


440 St. Leo I. the Great. 


827 


461 St. Hilary. 


828 


468 St. Simplicius. 


844 


483 St. Felix III. 


847 


492 St. Gelasius I. 


855 


496 St. Aihanasius II. 


855 


498 Symmachus. 


858 


498 Laurentius, anti-pope. 


867 


514 Hormisdas. 


872 


523 John I. 


882 


526 Felix IV. 


884 


530 Boniface II. 


885 


533 John II. 


89 1 


535 Agapetus I. 




536 St. Siiverius (banished.) 


896 



Vigilius. 

Pelagius I. 

John IIL 

A vacancy. 

Benedict I. 

Pelagius II. 

St. Gregory I. the Great. 

Sabinianus. 

Boniface III. 

Boniface IV. 

St. Deusdedit. 

Boniface V. 

Honorius I. 

A vacancy. 

Severinus. 

John IV. 

Theodorus I. 

Martin I. 

Eugenius I. 

Vitalianus. 

Adeodatus. 

Domnus I. 

St. Agathon. 

St. Leo II. 

A vacancy. 

Benedict II. 

John V. 

Conon. 

Sergius I. 

John VI. 

John VII. 

Sisinnius. 

Constantine. 

St. Gregory II. 

Gregory III. 

St. Zacharias. 

Stephen II. (beginning of pope's 

temporal power.) 
Paul I. 
Stephen III. 
Adrian I. 

Leo III. (crowned Charlemagne.) 
Stephen IV. 
Pascal I. 
Eugenius II. 
Valentine. 
Gregory IV. 
Sergius II. 
Leo IV. 
Benedict III. 
Athanasius, anti-pope. 
Nicholas I., the Great. 
Adrian II. 
John VI I L 
Martin II. 
Adrian III. 
Stephen V. 
Formosus (detested, corpse cast into 

Tiber). 
Boniface VI. (deposed.) 



458 



SUPPLEMENT. 



897 Stephen VI. (strangled in prison.) 

897 Romanus, anti-pope. 

898 Theodore II. 
898 John IX. 
900 Benedict IV. 

903 Leo V. (died in prison.^ 

903 Cnristoplier. 

904 Sergius III. (immoral.) 
91 1 Anastasius III. 

913 Landonms, or Lando. 

914 John X. (stifled to death.) 

928 Leo VI. 

929 Stephen VII. 

931 John XI. (died a prisoner in St. 

Angelo castle.) 
936 Leo VII. (zealous and pious.) 
939 Stephen VIII. (of herce character. ) 
942 Martin III. 
946 Agapetus II. (of holy life.) 
956 John XII. (infamous, murdered.) 

963 Leo VIII. 

964 Benedict V. 

965 John XIII. 

972 Benedict VI. (murdered in prison.) 
974 Domnus II. 

974 Boniface VII. 

975 Benedict VII 

983 John XIV. 

984 John XV. 

985 John XVI. 
996 Gregory V. 
999 Sylvester II. 

1003 John XVII. 

1003 John XVIII. (abdicated.) 

1009 Sergius IV. 

1012 Benedict VIII. 

1024 John XIX. (bought papacy.) 

1033 Benedict IX. (pope at 12 years, 

deposed.) 
1044 Gregory VI. (abdicated.) 

1046 Clement II. 

1047 Benedict IX. restored- 

1048 Damasus II. 
1048 St. Leo IX. , 

1054 A vacancy. 

1055 Victor II. 

1057 Stephen IX. 

1058 Benedict X. 
1058 Nicholas II. 
1061 Alexander II. 

1073 Gregory VII. (Hildebrand.) — 
ablest pope. 

1085 A vacancy. 

1086 Victor III. 
1088 Urban II. 
1099 Pascal II. 

1 1 18 Gelasius II. (became a monk.) 

1 1 19 Calixlus II. 

1 124 Honorius II. 
I MO Innocent II. 



1 138 Victor III., (Anacletus II. anti- 
pope.) 

1 143 Celestine II. 

1 144 Lucius II. 

1 145 Eugenius III. 

1 153 Anastasius IV. 

1 154 Adrian IV. (Nicholas Break- 

speare, an Englishman.) 
1 159 Alexander III. 
Ii8i Lucius III. 
1 185 Urban III. 
1 187 Gregory VIII. 
1 187 Clement III. 
1 191 Celestine III. 
I198 Innocent III. (able pope.) 
1 216 Hononus III. 
1227 Gregory IX. 
1 241 Celestine IV. 
1241 A vacancy. 
1243 Innocent IV. 
1254 Alexander IV. 
1 26 1 Urban IV. 
1265 Clement IV. 
1268 A vacancy. 
1 27 1 Gregory X. 
1276 Innocent V. 
1276 Adrian V. 
1276 Vicedominus (died next day). 

1276 John XX. or XXI. 

1277 Nicholas III. 
1 28 1 Martin IV. 
1285 Honorius IV. 
1288 Nicholas IV. 
1292 A vacancy. 

1294 St. Celestine V. (resigned.) 
1294 Boniface VIII. (able pope.) 

1303 Benedict XI. (poisoned.) 

1304 A vacancy. 

1305 Clement V. (first pope at Avignon.) 
1 3 14 A vacancy. 

1316 John XXII. 

1334 Benedict XII. (Nicholas V. anti- 
pope at Rome.) 

1342 Clement VI. 

1352 Innocent VI. 

1362 Urban V. 

I370 Gregory XI. (restores papal resi- 
dence to Rome.) 

1378 Urban VI. (His severity caused 
Robert of Geneva to be elected 
as Clement VII.) 

1378 Clement VII., anti-pope. 

1389 Boniface IX. 

1394 Benedict XIII. (antipope at Avig- 
non.) 

1404 Innocent VII. 

1406 Gregory Xil., anti-pope. 

1409 Alexander V. (poisoned.) 

1410 John XXIII. (deposed.) 
1417 Martin V. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



459 



1424 
H31 

1439 

1447 
1455 
i45« 
1464 
1471 
1484 
1492 
1503 
1503 
1513 
1522 

1523 
1534 
1550 
1555 
1555 
1559 
1566 
1572 

1585 
»59o 
1590 
1591 
1592 
1605 
1605 
1621 
1623 
1644 

1655 
1667 
1670 
1676 
I689 
1691 
1700 
1721 
1724 

1730 
1740 

1758 
1769 

1775 
1800 
1823 
1829 



iJ 



Clement VIII. (resigned 1429.) 
Eugenius IV. (deposed by Coun- 
cil of Basle.) 
P'elix v., anti-pope (resigned in 

I449-) 

Nicholas V. 

Calixtus III. 

Pius II. (yEneas Silvius.) 

Paul II. 

Sixtus IV. 

Innocent VIII. 

Alexander VI. (worst of popes.) 

Pius III. 

Julius II. (warlike pope.) 

Leo X. (John de Medici.) 

Adrian VI. 

Clement VII. (Julius de Medici.) 

Paul III. 

Julius III. 

Marcellus II. 

Paul IV. 

Pius IV. (Cardinal de Medici.) 

St. Pius V. 

Gregory XIII. (reformed calen- 
dar.) 

Sixtus V. (able ruler.) 

Urban VII. (died in 12 days.) 

Gregory XIV. 

Innocent IX. 

Clement VIII. 

Leo XI. 

Paul V. 

Gregory XV. 

Urban VIII. 

Innocent X. 

Alexander VII. 

Clement IX. 

Clement X. 

Innocent XL 

Alexander VIII. 

Innocent XII. 

Clement XL 

Innocent XIII. 

Benedict XIIL 

Clement XII. 

Benedict XIV. 

Clement XIII. 

Clement XIV. 

Pius VI. 

Pius VIL 

Leo XII. 

Pius VIIL 

Gregory XVI. 

Pius IX. 

Leo XIIL 



SARACEN CALIPHS. 

A, D. Race of Mohammed. 
627 Mohammel. 
6^2 Abubekir. 



634 Omar. 
644 Othman. 
655 Ali. 

The Onuniyades. 
660 Moawiyah. 
679 Yezid I. 

683 Abdullah. 

684 Merwan I. 
689 Ab-al-Malib. 
704 Walid I. 
714 Solyman. 
717 Omar II. 
719 Yezid II. 

723 Heshman. 

743 Walid II. 

744 Yezid III. 
744 Merwan II. 

The Abbassides. 
750 Abul-Abbas. 
754 Al-Mansur. 
779 Al-Modi. 

784 Musa'1-Hadi. 

785 Harounal-Raschid. 
807 Al-Amin. 

813 AI-Mamun. 
S33 Al-Motasem, 
841 AlWathek. 
846 Al-MotawakkeL 

861 Al-Montaser. 

862 Al-Mostaim. 
865 Al-Motaz. 

868 Al-Mohtadi. 

869 Al-Motamed. 
892 Al-Motaded. 
901 Al-Moktasi. 
907 Al-Moktador. 

932 Al-Kaher. 

933 Al-Radi. 
939 AI-Moktaki. 

943 Al-Mosktacsi. 

944 Al-Moti. 
973 Al-Tay. 
991 Al-Kader. 

1031 Al-Kaymen (deposed by the con- 
quering Seljuk Turks in 1055.) 

SARACEN AND MOORISH 
RULERS IN SPAIN. 
A. D. Saracen Emirs. 

712 Tarik and Musa. 

714 Abdelasis. 

715 Ayub, Alhaur. 

721 Alsama. 

722 Abderrahman. 

724 Ambisa. 

726 Hodeira, Yahia. 

727 Othman, Hodeira ben Alhaus, Al- 

haitam. 

728 Mohammed. 



460 



SUPPLEMENT. 



729 Abderrahman restoied. 

733 Abdelmelic. 

736 Ocba. 

741 Abdelmelic resiored. 

742 Baleg, Thalaba. 

743 Husam. 

744 Thueba. 

746 Yussuf (to 755). 

Calip/is of Cordova. 
755 Abderrahman I. 
787 Hixem I. 
796 Alhakem I. 
821 Abderrahman II. 
852 Mohammed I. 
886 Almoiidhir. 
888 Abdalla. 
912 Abderrahman III. 
961 Alhakem II. 
976 Hixem II. 
1012 Suleyman. 
1015 Ali. 

10 1 7 Abderrahman IV. 

1018 Alcassim. 

1023 Abderrahman V., Mohammed II. 
1026 Hixem HI. (Caliphate ended in 
1031.) 

Reguli of Cordova. 
103 1 Gehwar. 

1044 Mohammed ben Gehwar. 
1060 Mohammed Almoateded. 
1069 Mohaunned Almostadir. 

Alinoravide Dynasty (^African'). 
1094 Jusef. 
1 107 Ali. 
1 144 Faxtin. 

Almohade Dynasty (^Africatz). 
1 147 Abdelmumen. 
1 1 63 Jusef. 
1178 Yacub. 
1199 Mohammed. 
1213 Abu Yacub. 
1223 Abulmelic, Abdelwahid. 
1225 Almamon, Abu Ali (to 1238). 

Moorish K'i)tgs of Granada. 
1238 Mohammed I. 
1273 Mohammed II. 
1302 Mohammed III. 
1309 Nassir. 
13 13 Ismail I. 
1325 Mohammed IV. 
1333 Ju^ef I. 
1354 Mohammed V. 
1359 Ismail II. 
1350 Abu Said. 
1391 Jusef II. 
1396 Mohammed VI. 



1408 Jusef III. 

1423 Mohammed VII. (deposed). 

1427 Mohammed VIII. 

1429 Mohammed VII. restored. 

1445 Mohammed IX. 

1454 Mohammed X. 

1463 Muley Ali. 

1483 Abu Abdalla. 

1484 Abdalla el Zagal (his kingdom 

conquered in 1492 by Ferdi- 
nand V. of Aragon and Isa- 
bella of Castile). 

MEDL^VAL .SPANISH CHRIS- 
TIAN KINGS. 

A'ings of Asturis and Leon. 
A. D. 
718 Pelayo. 
737 Favila. 

739 Alfonso I., the Catholic. 
757 Froila I. 
768 Aurelio. 

774 Mauregato, the Usurper 
788 Bermuda I. 
791 Alfonso II., the Chaste, 
842 Ramirio I. 
850 Ordono I. 
866 Alfonso HI., the Great. 
910 Garcias. 
914 Ordono II. 
923 Froila II. 
925 Alfonso IV., the Monk. 
930 Ramirio II. 
950 Ordono III. 

955 Ordono I V^. 

956 Sancho I., the Fat. 
967 Ramirio HI. 

983 Bermuda II,, the Gouty. 
999 Alfonso V. 
1027 Bermuda III. (to 1037.) 

A'ings of Castile and Leon. 
A. D. 

1035 Ferdinand I., the Great. 
1065 .Sancho H., the Strong. 
1072 Alfonso VI., the Valiant. 
1 109 Uraca and Alfonso VII. 
1 126 Alfonso VII., Raymond. 

1 157 .Sancho HI., the Beloved. 

1158 Alfonso VIII., the Noble. 

1 157 Ferdinand II., King of Leon, 
which is separated from Castile 
from 1 157 to 1 188. 

1 188 Alfonso IX., of Leon. 

1214 Henry I. 

1217 Ferdinand HI., the Saint. 

1252 Alfonso .X., the Wise. 

1284 Sancho IV., the Brave. 

1295 Ferdinand IV. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



461 



1312 Alfonso XL 
1350 Pedro the Cruel. 
1369 Henry II., the Gracious. 
1379 John I. 

1390 Henry III., the Sickly. 
' 1406 John II. 
1454 Henry IV., the Impotent. 
1474 Isabella (married to Ferdinand V. 

of Aragon, thus uniting Aragon 

and Castile, 1479) 

A. D. Kings of Aragon. 

1035 Ramiro I. 

1065 Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarre.) 

1094 Pedro of Navarre. 

1 104 Alfonso I., the Warrior (of Na- 
varre.) 

1 134 Ramiro II.. the Meek. 

1 1 37 Petronilla, and Raymond of Bar- 
celona. 

1 163 Alfonso II. 

1 196 Pedro II. 

12 13 James I. 

1276 Pedro III. 

1285 Alfonso III., the Beneficent. 

1291 James II., the Just. 

1327 Alfonso IV. 

1336 Pedro IV., the Ceremonious. 

1387 John I. 

1410 An interregnum. 

1412 Ferdinand I., the Just (King of 
Sicily.) 

1416 Alfonso v., the Wise. 

1458 John II. (of Navarre.) 

1479 Ferdinand II., the Catholic (mar- 
ried Isabella of Castile, thus 
uniting the two kingdoms.) 

A. D. Kings of Navarre. 

885 Garcias I. (son of Count Sancho 
Inigo, who founded Navarre, 

873) 
905 Sancho Garcias. 
924 Garcias II., the Trembler. 
970 Sancho II., the Great (King of 

Castile.) 
1035 Garcias III. 
1054 Sancho III. 

1076 Sancho IV. (Ramirez of Aragon.) 
1094 Pedro of Aragon. 
1 104 Alfonso I. of Aragon. 
1 134 Garcias IV., Ramirez. 
1 150 Sancho v., the Wise. 
1 194 Sancho VI., the Infirm. 
1234 Theobald I. (Count of Cham 

pagne.) 
1253 Theobald II. 
1270 Henry Crassus. 
1274 Joanna I. (married to Philip the 
P'air of Fiance.) 



1305 Louis X. of France. 
316 John. 
316 Philip V. (Philip the Tall of 

France.) 
1322 Charles I. (Charles IV. of 

France.) 
1328 Joanna II. and Philip, Count 

d'Evreux. 
1343 Joanna II. alone. 
1349 Charles II., the Bad. 
1387 Charles III., the Noble. 
1425 Blanche and her husband, John 

II. 
1479 Eleanor de Foix. 
1479 Francis Phoebus de Foix. 
1483 Catharine and John d'Albret (Na- 
varre annexed to Spain, 1512). 

A. D. Lower Navarre {in France^. 

15 16 Henry d'Albret. 

'555 Jane d'Albret (and her husband 

Anthony de Bourbon, who 

died in 1562). 
1572 Henry III. (became Henry IV. 

of France in 1589, to which 

Lower Navarre was annexed 

in 1609 ) 

DUKES OF NORMANDY. 

A. D. 
912 Rollo, or Robert. 
927 William I., Longsword. 
943 Richard the Fearless. 
996 Richard the Good. * 

1027 Richard III. 

1028 Robert the Devil. 

1035 William II. (the Conqueror of 

England.) 

1087 Robert II. 

1 106 Henry I. "I T-. r -c 1 j 

Z V Kings of England. 
1 135 Stephen, j * * 

1 144 Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. 

I It: I Henry II. \ ^r- c -c 

5 r> 1 J .u T • Kings of Eng- 

II 89 Richard the Lion- ?■ 1 j 

hearted. J 

1 199 Arthur, and John of England (to 

1204). 

DUKES OF BURGUNDY. 

A. D. House of Valois. 

1363 Philip the Bold. 

1404 John the Fearless. 

1419 Philip the Good. 

1467 Charles the Bold (killed in battle, 

H77)- 
KINGS OF IRELAND. 
A. D. 
980 Maol Ceachlin II. (deposed.) 
1000 Brian Boru (great warrior, fell in 

battle with the Danes). 



462 



SUPPLEME'NT. 



1014 Maol Ceachlin II. restored. 

1032 Disputed succession. 

1058 Donough, or Denis, O'Brien. 

1072 Turloch, or Turlough. 

1086-1132 Kingdom divided. 

1 132 Tordel Vach. 

1 166 Roderic, or Roger, O'Connor. 

1 172 Henry II. of England. 

KING.S AND QUEENS OF 
ENGLAND. 



A. D. 



Au^lo- Saxon Kin^s. 



827 


Egbert. 


838 


Eihelwolf. 


857 


Ethelbald. 


860 


Ethelbert. 


866 


Ethelred I. 


871 


Alfred the Great. 


901 


Edward the Elder. 


955 


Athelstan. 


940 


Edmund I. 


946 


Ed red. 


955 


Edwy. 


959 


Edgar. 


975 


Edward the Martyr 


978 


Ethelred II. 


1016 


Edmund Ironside. 



Danish Kings. 
1017 Canute the Great (of Denmark). 
1036 Harold Harefoot. 
1039 Hardicanute (of Denmark). 

Saxon Kings. 
1041 Edward the Confessor. 
1066 Harold. 

A^orman Kings. 
1066 William the Conqueror (Duke of 

Normandy). 
1087 William Rufus. 
1 100 Henry I. (Beau- 1 

clerc.) 
1 135 Stephen (Count 

of Blois). J 

The Plantagenets. 

1 154 Henry II. (Earl of" 
Anjou. ) 

1 1 89 Richard the Lion- 
hearted. 

1 199 John. 

1216 Henry III. 

1272 Edward I. 

1307 Edward II. 

1327 Edward III. 

1377 Richard II. 

1399 Henry IV 

14 1 3 Henry V. 

1422 Henry VI, 



Dukes of Nor- 
mandy. 



Dukes of 
Normandy. 



House of Lancaster. 



146 1 Edward IV. '\ 

1483 Edward V. |- House of York. 

14S3 Richard IIlJ 

The Tudors. 
14S5 Henry VH. 
1509 Henry VIH. 
1547 Edward VI. 
1553 Mary I. 
1558 Elizabeth. 

The Stuarts. — Kings of England and 
Scotland. 

1603 James I. (James VI. of Scotland.) 

1625 Charles I. (beheaded 1649.) 

1649 The Commonwealth (Oliver Crom- 
well, Lord Protector, 1653; 
Richard Cromwell, 1658). 

1660 Charles II. 

1685 James II. (James VII. of Scot- 
land), deposed 1688. 

1689 William in. and Mary II. (Will- 
iam of Orange, Stadtholder of 
the Dutch Republic.) 

1702 Anne (England and Scotland 
united in 1707). 

House of Brunswick. — Kings of Great 
Britain. 

17 14 George I. 

1727 George H. 

1760 George III. 

1820 George IV. 1 ,,. ^ ^t 

o i.r I T^r > Kings of Hanover. 

1830 Wilium IV. / ^ 

1837 Victoria. (" Empress of India "). 



Electors of Hanover. 



KINGS AND QUEENS OF 
.SCOTLAND. 



A. D 
843 

854 
858 
S74 
876 

893 
904 

944 

953 
961 

965 
970 

994 

995 
1003 

1033 
1039 
1057 
1093 



Dynasty of K'enneth. 

Kenneth MacAlpine (tirst King 
of all Scotland). 

Donald V. 

Constantine II. 

Eihus. 

Gregory the Great. 

Donald' VI. 

Constantine III. 

Malcolm 1. 

Indulf. 

Dufif. 

Culien. 

Kenneth III. 

Constantine IV. 

Kenneth the Grim. 

Malcolm 11. 

Duncan I. 

Macbeth. 

Malcolm III., Canmore. 

Donald VII., or Donald Bane (de- 
posed)-. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



463 



1094 Duncan II. 

1094 Donald VII. (restored and de- 
posed.) 

1098 Edgar. 

1 107 Alexander I., the Fierce. 

1 1 24 David I. 

1153 Malcolm IV. 

1 165 William the Lion. 

1214 Alexander II. 

1249 Alexander" III. 

1285 Margaret (the "Maid of Nor- 
way"). 

Houses of Baliol and Brtice. 

1292 John Baliol (deposed by Edward 

I. of England. 
1296 Edward I. of England. 
1306 Robert Bruce. 
1329 David Bruce (driven away). 
1332 Edward Baliol. 
1342 David Bruce restored. 

House of Stuart. 
1371 Robert II. 
1390 Robert III. 
1406 An interregnum. 
1424 James I. (murdered.) 
1437 James II. 
1460 James III. (murdered.) 
1488 James IV. (killed at Flodden.) 
1513 James V. 
1542 Mary (beheaded in England in 

1587)- 
1567 James VI. (became James I. of 
England in 1603.) 

KINGS AND EMPERORS OF 
FRANCE. 



A. D. 



Alerovingian Kings. 



481 Clovis. 

511 Childebert I. 

Clodimir. 

Thierry I. 

Cloiaire I. J 
534 Theodebert I. 
548 Theodebald. 
558 Clotaire I. sole king 
561 Charibert. ~| 

Gontram. 

Sigebert I. 

Chilperic I. J 
575 Childebert II. 
584 Clotaire II. 
596 Thierry II. \ Toi^tiv 

Theodebert II. fJomHy- 
613 Clotaire II. sole king. 
628 Dagobert I., the Great. 
638 Clovis II. It-, 

Sigebert II. jJ^'^^'y- 



Kingdom divided 



Kinsjdom divided. 



656 Clotaire III. 

670 Childeric II. 

670 Thierry III. 

674 Dagobert II. 

691 Clovis III. 



") Pepin d'Heri- 



Charles Mar- 
tel, Mayor of 
the Palace. 



695 Childebert III., Utal, Mayor of 
the Just. J the Palace. 

71 1 Dagobert III. 

715 Chilperic II. 
(deposed.) 

717 Clotaire IV. 

720 Chilperic II. 
restored. 

720 Thierry IV. 

737 Animerregnum. 

742 Childeric III., the Stupid, (de- 
posed in 751 by Pepin the Little, 
son of Charles Martel.) 

Carlo7)ingian Kings. 

Pepin the Little (son of Charles 

Martel). 
Charlemagne, or Charles the Great 

(and Carlomian until 771). 
Louis le Debonnaire. 
Charles the Bald. 
Louis II., the .Stammerer. 
Louis III. and Carloman II. 
Charles III. (usurper.) 
Hugh, or Eudes, Count of Paris. 
Charles the Simple. 
Robert. 

Raoul, or Rudolf. 
Louis IV., d'Outremer. 
Lothaire. 
Louis v., the Sluggard (deposed 

in 987 by Hugh Capet). 

House of Capet. 
Hugh Capet. 
Robert the Pious. 
Henry I. 
Pnilip I. 

Louis VI., the Fat. 
Louis VII. 
Philip Augustus. 
Louis VIII., the Lion. 
Louis IX., or St. Louis, 
PiiUip the Hardy. 
Philip the Fair. 
Louis X. 
Pnilip the Tall. 
Charles the Fair. 

House of Valois. 
Philip of Valois. 
John the Good. 
Charles V., the Wise. 
Charles VI. 
Charles VII., the Vic'.orious. 



751 

768 

814 
840 
877 
879 
884 
887 
898 
922 
923 
936 
954 



987 

997 
103 1 
1060 
1 108 

1 137 
1 180 
1223 
1226 
1270 
1285 

1314 
1316 
1321 

1328 
1350 
1364 
1380 
1422 



464 



SUPPLEMENT. 



I461 Louis XI. 

1483 Charles VIII., the Courteous. 
1498 Louis XII., .the Father of his Peo- 
ple. 
1515 Francis I. 
1547 Henry II. 

1559 Francis II. 

1560 Charles IX. 
1574 Henry III. 

House of Bourbon. 
1589 Henry IV. (Henry III. of Na- 
varre.) 
1610 Louis Xlil. 
1643 Louis XIV. 
1715 Louis XV. 
1774 Louis XVI. (beheaded 1793.) 

The First Republic. 
1792 National Convention. 
1795 Directory. 
1799 Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. 

The First Empire. 
1804 Napoleon I. (Bonaparte.) 

The First Bourbon Restoration. 

1814 Louis XVIIL 

The Hundred Days. 

18 15 Napoleon I. restored. 

1 he Second Bourbon Restoration. 
1815 Louis XVIIL restored. 
1824 Charles X. 

House of Orleans. 

1830 Louis Philippe. 

Second Republic. 

1848 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, Presi- 
dent. 

Seco7td Empire. 

1852 Napoleon III. (Louis Napoleon.) 

Third Republic. 

1870 Provisional Government. 

1871 Louis Adolphe Thiers, President. 
1873 Maurice MacMahon, " 
1879 Jules Grevy, " 

GERMAN KINGS AND 
EMPERORS. 

A. D. Carlovingians. 

800 Charlemagne. 

814 Louis le Debonnaire. 

840 Lothaire. 

855 Louis the German. 

875 Charles the Bald (King of France). 

877 An interregnum. 

SSo Charles the Fat (deposed). 



887 Arnulf. 

898 Louis the Blind. 

898 Louis the Child (deposed). 

House of Franconia. 
911 Conrad I. 

House of Saxony. 
919 Henry the Fowler. 
936 Otho the Great. 
973 Otho II. 
983 Otho HI. 
1002 Henry II., the Saint (of Bavaria). 

House of Franconia, 

1024 Conrad 11, 

1039 Henry III. 

1056 Henry IV. 

1 106 Henry V. 

House of Saxony. 
1 1 25 Lothaire. 

The Hohenstaufens. 
1 1 38 Conrad III. 
1 152 Frederick Barbarossa. 
1 190 Otho IV. and Philip of Svrabia. 
1 197 Henry VI. 
121S Frederick II. 
1250 An interregnum of 23 years. 

Different Dynasties. 

1273 Rudolf of Hapsburg. 

1 29 1 Adolf of Nassau. 

1298 Albert I. of Austria (Hapsburg). 

1308 Henry VII. (of Luxemburg.) 

1313 Louis of Bavaria and Frederick 

the Fair of Austria. 

1330 Louis of Bavaria alone. 

1 ;47 Charles IV. "> rr- r -d u 

-"/, ,,, , V Kmgs of Bohemia. 

1378 Wenceslas. / *> 

1400 Rupert of the Palatinate. 

1410 Sigismund (King of Hungary and 

Bohemia). 

Austrian House of Hapsburg. 

1438 Albert II., of Austria. 

1440 Frederick III. 

1493 Maximilian I. (first Archduke of 

Austria.) 
1519 Charles V. (Charles I. of Spain.) 
1556 Ferdinand I. "j 
1564 Maximilian II. 
1576 Rudolf II. Archdukes of 

1612 Matthias. Austria, and 

1619 Fer(iinand II. \ Kings of 
1637 Ferdinand III. Hungary and 

1657 Leopoldl. Bohemia, 

1705 Joseph I. 
171 1 Charles VI. J 
1740 An interregnum. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



465 



House of Bavaria. 

I741 Charles VII. 

Austrian House of Ha psbiirg- Lor- 
raine. 

1745 Francis I. 

1765 Joseph II. Kings of Hun- 

1790 Leopold II. I g3.ry and Bo- 

1792 Francis II. (until hernia. 
1806). 

1806 Confederation of the Rhine. 
1815 Germanic Confederation. 
1867 North German Confederation. 

House of Hohenzollern. 
1871 William I. (King of Prussia.) 

DUKES, ARCHDUKES, AND EM- 
PERORS OF AUSTRIA. 

A. D. Margraves of Austria. 

928 Leopold I., the Illustrious. 

973 Henry I., the Rebel. 
1018 Albert I., the Victorious. 
1056 Ernest the Valiant. 
1075 Leopold II., the Beautiful. 
1096 Leopold III. 
1 136 Albert II. 
1 136 Leopold IV. the Saint. 
1 140 Leopold v., the Liberal. 
1 142 Henry II. 

Dukes of Austrii. 

1 156 Henry II. (as Duke). 

1 177 Leopold VI., the Virtuous. 

1 194 Frederick I., the Catholic. 

1195 Leopold VII., the Glorious. 
1230 Frederick II., the Warhke. 
1246 An interregnum. 

Austrian Dukes — House of Hapsburg. 

1278 Rudolf I. (of Hapsburg.) 

1282 Albert I. 

1305 Rudolf II. 

1308 Frederick III. the Fair, and Leo- 
pold 1. 

1326 Frederick I. alone. 

1330 Albert II. the Wise, and Otho. 

1339 Albert II. alone. 

1358 Rudolf III. 

1365 Albert III. and Leopold III. 

1386 An interregnum. 

1395 William I. and his brothers and 
cousin Albert IV., the Wonder. 

141 1 Albert V., the Severe. 

1437 Albert VI. (Emperor Albert II. 
of Germany.) 

30 



1439 Ladislas. 

1457 Frederick IV. (Frederick III. of 
Germany), and Albert VI. 

Austrian Archdukes — House of Haps- 
burg. 



1493 
1519 

1521 

1564 
1576 
1608 
1619 
1637 
1657 
1705 
1711 

1740 
1780 
1790 
1792 



Maximilian I. (German Emperor.) 
Charles I. (Emperor Charles V. 
of Germany.) 
Ferdinand I. "t Emperors of 
Maximilian II. J Germany. 
Rudolf I. (Emperor Rudolf II.) 
Matthias. '^ 

Ferdinand II. I t;, r 

Ferdmand III. E^P^'-'^'-^ °f 
Leopold I. Germany. 

Joseph I. J 

Charles II. (Emperor Charles VI. 

of Germany). 
Maria Theresa. 



Joseph II. 
Leopold II. 
Francis I. 
many.) 



} Emperors 
many. 
(Francis II. 



of Ger- 



of Ger- 



Ef?!perors of Austria— House of Haps- 
burg-Lorraine. 

1804 Francis I. (Francis II. of Germany 

from 1792 to 1806). 
1835 P^rdinand I. 
184S Francis Joseph. 

ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG, 

DUKES AND KINGS OF 

PRUSSIA. 

A. D. Margraves of Brandenburg. 



"34 
1 170 
1 1 84 
1206 
1221 
1266 
1282 
1309 

1319 
1320 

1323 
1352 
1365 
1373 
137^ 
1388 
1411 



1415 
1440 
1470 



Albert I., the Bear. 

Otho I. 

Otho II. 

Albert II. 

John I. and Otho III. 

John II. 

Otho IV. 

Waldemar. 

Henry I., the Young. 

An interregnum. 

Louis I. of Bavaria. 

Louis II., the Roman. 

Otho IV., the Sluggard. 

Wenceslas of Bohemia. 

Sigismund of Bohemia (deposed); 

Jossus the Bearded. 

Sigismund restored. 

House of Hohenzollern. 

Frederick I. 

Frederick II., Ironside. 

Albert III., the German Achilles^ 



466 



SUPPLEMENT. 



Electors of Brandenbtirg- 
Hohenzollern. 



-House of 



1476 John III. (Elector in i486.) 

1499 Joachim I. 

1535 Joachim II. 

157 1 John George. 

1598 Joachim Frederick. 

1608 John Sigismund. 

Electors of Brandenburg and Dukes 
of Prussia — House of Hohenzollern. 

1618 John Sigismund. 

1619 George William. 

1640 Frederick William, the Great 

Elector. 
1688 Frederick III. 

Kings of Prussia — House of Hohen- 
zollern. 
1701 Frederick I. (Elector Frederick 

III.) 
1713 Frederick William I. 
1740 Frederick II., the Great. 
1786 Frederick William II. 
1797 Frederick William III. 
1840 Frederick William IV. 
1861 William I.' (became Emperor of 

Germany in 1 87 1.) 

RUSSIAN GRAND-DUKES, CZARS 
AND EMPERORS, 

A. D. Grand-Dukes of Kiev. 

875 Ruric. 

879 Oleg. 

913 Igor I. 

945 Glga (widow, regent). 

955 Swiatoslaw 1. 

973 Jaropalk I. 

980 Vladimir the Great. 
1015 Swiatopalk I. 
1018 Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
1054 Isiaslaw I. 
1073 Swiatoslaw II. 
1078 Wsewolod I. 
1093 Swiatopalk II. 
1 1 13 Vladimir II. 
1 1 25 Mitislaw. 
1 132 Jaropalk II. 

1 138 Wiatschelaw. 

1 139 Wsewolod II. 

1 146 Isiaslaw II. and Igor II. 

1 153 Rostislaw. 

1 149 June, or George I. 

Grand- Dukes of Vladimir. 
1157 Andrew I. "1 
1 175 Michael I. J 
1 177 Wsewolod III. 
1213 Jurie, or George II. 
1217 Constantine. 



238 Jaraslaw II. 

245 Alexander Nevski, 

263 Jaraslaw III. 

270 Vasili, or Basil I. 

275 Demetri I. 

281 Andrew II. 

294 Daniel Alexandrovitsch. 

303 Jurie, or George III. (deposed.) 

305 Michael III. 

320 Vasili, or Basil II. 

325 Jurie, or George III. restored. 

327 Alexander II. 

Grand Dukes of Moscow. 

328 Ivan, or John I. 
340 Simeon the Proud. 
353 Ivan, or John II. 

359 Demetri II. (Prince of Susdal.) 

362 Demetri III. (Dunskoi.) 

389 Vasili, or Basil III. (Temnoi.) 

425 Vasili, or Basil IV. 

462 Ivan, or John III., the Great. 

505 Vasili, or Basil V. 

Czars of AIoscozo. 

533 Ivan, or John IV., the Terrible. 

588 Feodor, or Theodore I. 

598 Demetri. 

598 Boris Godonoff. 

605 Feodor, or Theodore II. 

606 Demetri (impostor). 
606 Vasili Zouinski. 

610 Ladislas VII. of Poland. 

A'ussian Czars, Emperors, and Em- 
presses, of the House of Romanoff. 
1613 Michael Romanoft". 
1645 Alexis. 
1676 Feodor. 
1682 Ivan V^ and Peter I. 
1689 Peter I., the Great, ") 

alone. 
1725 Catharine I. 
1727 Peter II. 
1730 Anna. 

1740 Ivan VI. 

1741 Elizabeth. Emperors 
1762 Peter III. I and 
1762 Catharine II., the Empresses. 

Great. 
1796 Paul. 
1801 Alexander I. 
1825 Nicholas. 
1855 Alexander 11. 
1881 Alexander III. 

DUKES OF SAVOY, KINGS OF 
SARDINES, AND KINGS 
OF ITALY. 
A. D. Dukes of Savoy. 

1416 Amadeus VIII., the Pacific. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



467 



Ludovic. 

Amadeus IX., the Saint. 

Philibert I., the Hunter. 

Charles I., the Warhke. 

Charles II. 

Philip Lackland. 

Philibert II., the Fair. 

Charles III., the Good. 

Emmanuel Philibert, Iron Hand. 

Charles Emmanuel I., the Great. 

Victor Amadeus I. 

Francis Hyacinthus. 

Charles Emmanuel II. 

Victor Amadeus II. 



1440 

1465 
1472 
1482 
1489 
1496 

1497 
1504 

1553 
1580 
1630 

1637 
1638 

1675 
Kings of Sardinia and Dukes of 

Savoy. 
1720 Victor Amadeus II. 
1730 Charles Emmanuel III. 
1773 Victor Amadeus III. 
1796 Charles Emmanuel IV. 

Kings of Sardinia — House of Savoy. 
1802 Victor Emmanuel I. 
1 82 1 Charles Felix. 
1 83 1 Charles Albert. 
1849 Victor Emmanuel II. 

Kings of Italy — House of Savoy. 
1 86 1 Victor Emmanuel II. 
1878 Humbert. 

KINGS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 

A. D. Norman Dynasty, 

1131 Roger I. 

1 154 William I., the Bad. 

I166 William II., the Good. 

1 189 Tancred. 

1 194 William III. 

Hohetistaufen Dynasty. 

1 197 Emperor Frederick II., of Ger- 
many. 
1250 Conrad. 
1254 Conradin. 
1258 Manfred. 

House of Anjou. 
\2.(i(i Charles of Anjou. 
Kings of Naples. — House of Anjou. 

1282 Charles I. of Anjou. 
1285 Charles II. 
1309 Robert the Wise. 
1343 Joanna I. 
1382 Charles III. 
1382 Louis I. 

1385 Louis II. 

1386 Ladislas of Hungary. 
1414 Joanna II. (to 1435). 



Kings of Sicily — House of Ar agon. 

1282 Peter I. (III. of Aragon.) 

1285 James I. (II. of Aragon.) 

1295 Frederick II. 

1337 Peter II. 

1342 Louis. 

1355 Frederick III. 

1376 Maria and Martin. 

1402 Martin I. 

1409 Martin II. 

1410 Ferdinand I. 

1416 Alfonso I. (to 1435.) 

King of Naples and Sicily. — House of 
Aragoit. 

1435 Alfonso I. (to 1458.) 

Kings of Naples — House of Aragon. 

1458 Ferdinand I. 

1494 Alfonso II. 

1495 Ferdinand II. 

1496 Frederick II. (to 1501.) 

Kings of Sicily. — House of Aragon. 
1458 John of Aragon. 
1479 Ferdinand the Catholic (to 1503.) 

Naples and Sicily under the Kings of 
Spa it!. 

1503 Ferdinand III. (V. of Spain.) 
1 5 16 Charles I. (of Spain and V. of 

Germany. 
1556 Philip I. (II. of Spain). 
1598 Phihp II. (III. of Spain). 
1621 Philip III. (IV. of Spam). 
1666 Charles II. (of Spain). 
1700 Philip IV. (V. of Spain). 
1707 Charles III. of Austria (VI. of 

Germany). 

King of Naples. 
1713 Charles III. of Austria. 

King of Sicily. 
1713 Victor Amadeus of Savoy. 
Kings of Naples and Sicily. 

1720 Charles III., of Austria. 
1735 Charles IV. (III. of Spain). 
1759 Ferdinand IV. 

Kings of Naples. 

1806 Joseph Bonaparte. 
1808 Joachim Murat. 

King of Sicily. 

1806 Ferdinand IV. (to 1815.) 

Kings of Naples and Sicily. 

1815 Ferdinand IV. restored. 
1825 Francis I. 



468 



SUPPLEMENT. 



1830 Ferdinand V. 

1S59 Francis II. (Kingdom annexed to 
Italy, 1861.) 

KINGS OF HUNGARY. 
A. D. Dynasty of Arpad. 

1000 Stephen the Pious. 
1038 Peter the German (deposed). > 
1041 Aba, or Owen. 
1044 Peter the German restored. 
1047 Andrew I. 
1061 Bela I. 
1064 Salamon. 
1075 Geisa I. 

1077 LadisJas I., the Pious. 
1095 Colomon. 
1 1 14 Stephen II., Thunder. 
1131 Bela II. 
1 141 Geisa II. 
1 161 Stephen III. 
1 173 Bela III. 
1 196 Emmeric. 

1204 Ladislas II. 

1205 Andrew II. 
1235 Bela IV. 
1270 Steplien IV. 
1272 Ladislas III. 
1290 Andrew III. 

Elective Kings of Differe7tt Dynasties. 

1301 Wenceslas of Bohemia. 

1309 Charles Robert of Anjou. 

1342 Louis the Great (of Anjou, also 

King of Poland, 1370-1382). 
1382 Mary (" King Mary "). 
1385 Charles Durazzo. 
1387 Sigismund (King of Bohemia and 

Emperor of Germany). 
1437 Albert of Austria (Emperor Albert 

I. of Germany). 

1439 Elizabeth. 

1440 Ladislas IV. (King of Poland.) 

1444 An interregnum. 

1445 John Hunniyades (regent). 
1458 Ladislas V. 

1458 Matthias Corvinus. 

1490 Ladislas VI. (King of Poland). 

15 16 Louis II. 

1526 John Zapolya. 

Austrian House of Hapsburg. 

1526 Ferdinand I. (Archduke of Aus- 
tria, and Emperor of Germany 
1556-1564.) 

1563 Maximdian (Maximilian II., Arch- 
duke of Austria and Emperor 
of Germany). 

1572 Rudolf (Archduke of Austria and 
Emperor Rudolf II. of Ger- 
many) . 



1608 



1618 
1625 

1647 



1655 
1687 



1740 



1780 
1790 

1792 



1835 
1848 



Matthias II. (Matthias, Archduke 
of Austria and Emperor of 
Germany.) 

! Archdukes of 
Austria and 
Emperors of 
Germany. 
Ferdinand IV. 

Leopold I. ^^■"'^'^•^"^^^ 
Joseph I. 



Joseph II. 



of Aus- 
tria and Emperors 
of Germany. 
171 1 Charles III. (Archduke* Charles 
of Austria, and Emperor 
Charles VI. of Germany.) 
Maria Theresa (Archduchess of 
Austria and wife of Emperor 
Francis I. of Germany). 

1 Archdukes of Aus- 
tria and Emper- 
ors ot Germany. 
Francis I. (Archduke Francis of 
Austria to 1804, and Emperor 
Francis II. of Germany to 
1806, and Emperor Francis I. 
of Austria, 1804-1835.) 
Ferdinand V. (Emperor Ferdi- 
nand I. of Austria.) 
Francis Joseph (Emperor of Aus- 
tria). 

KINGS OF POLAND. 
A. D. Dynasty of Piast. 
1000 Boleslas I. 
1025 Micislas II. 
1034 Richsa, queen-regent. 
1037 An interregnum. 
104 1 Casimir I. 
1058 Boleslas II., the Intrepid. 
1081 Ladislas I. the Careless. 
1 102 Boleslas III., Wrv-mouth. 
1 138 Ladislas II. 
1 146 Boleslas IV. the Curled. 
U73 Micislas III. the Old (deposed). 
1 177 Casimir 11., the Just. 
1 194 Lesko v., the White (deposed). 
1 200 Micislas III. restored. 
1202 Ladislas III. 
1206 Lesko the White restored. 
1227 Boleslas V., the Ciiaste. 
1279 Lesko VI., the Black. 
1289 An interregnum. 
1295 Premislas. 
1304 Ladislas IV., the .Short. 
1333 Casimir III., the Great. 

Elective Kings of Different Dynasties. 

1370 Louis the Great (King of Hun- 
gary). 
1382 Maria. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



469 



1384 Ladislas V. (Jagello.) 

1434 Ladislas VI. 

1444 Casimir IV. 

1492 John Albert. i The 

1 50 1 Alexander. | Jagellos 

1506 Sigismund I., the 

Great. 
1548 Sigismund II. 

1572 An interregnum. 

1573 Henry of Valois (afterward Henry 

III. of France). 
1575 Stephen Bathori. 

1586 An interregnum. 

1587 Sigismund III. 
1632 Ladislas VIL 
1648 John Casimir. 

1668 An interregnum. 

1669 Michael Wiesnowiski. 
1674 John Sobieski. 

1696 An interregnum. 

1697 Frederick Augustus I. (Elector of 

Saxony.) 
1704 Stanislas Leczinski. 
1709 Frederick Augustus I. restored. 
1733 Frederick Augustus II. (Elector 

of Saxony.) 

1763 An interregnum. 

1764 Stanislas Poniatowski (deposed in 

1795, when Poland's indepen- 
dence ended). 

KINGS OF DENMARK. 

Gorm the Old. 
Harald Bluetooth. 
Sweyn I. 

Canute the Great (conqueror of 
England, Sweden and Is^orway). 
Hardicanute. 

Magnus the Good, of Norway. 
Sweyn II. 
An interregnum. 
Harald the Smiple. 
Canute IV. 
Olaf the Hungry. 
Eric the Good. 
An interregnum. 
Nicholas I. 
Eric Harefoot. 
Eric the Lamb. 
Sweyn III. and Canute V. 
Sweyn III. alone. 
Waldemar the Great. 
Canute the Pious. 
Waldemar the Conqueror. 
Eric IV. 
Abel. 

Christopher I. 
Eric V. 
Eric VI. 
Christopher II. 



A.D. 

875 

941 

991 

1014 

1035 
1042 
1047 

1073 
1076 
1080 
1086 
'095 
iio3 
[105 

•137 
[147 

'I54 

'57 

[182 

1202 

[241 

1250 

252 

'259 

286 



(Eric 



1334 An interregnum. 
1340 Waldemar III. 

1375 An interregnum. 

1376 Olaf V. 
1387 Margaret. 
1397 Margaret and Eric VII. 

XIII. of Sweden). 
1412 Eric VII. alone. 
1438 An interregnum. 
1440 Christopher III. of Sweden. 

House of Oldenberg. 
1448 Christian I. 
1481 John. 
1513 Christian II. 
1523 Frederick I. 
1533 Christian III. 
1559 Frederick II. 
1588 Christian IV. 
1648 Frederick III. 
1670 Christian V. 
1699 Frederick IV. 
1730 Christian VI. 
1746 Frederick V. 
1766 Christian VII. 
1808 Frederick VI. 
1839 Christian VIII. 
1848 Frederick VII. 
1863 Christian IX. 

A. D. KINGS OF NORWAY. 

875 Harald Fairhair (Harfager). 

934 Eric I. 

940 Hako the Good. 

963 Harald Graafeld 

977 Hako Jarl. 

995 Olaf Trygvseson. 

1015 Olaf the Saint. 

1028 Canute the Great of Denmark. 

1036 Magnus the Bastard. 

1047 Harald Hardrada. 

1066 Olaf HI. and Magnus II. 

1069 Olaf III. alone. 

1093 Magnus Barefoot. 

1 103 Sigurd I., Eystein II. and Olaf 

IV. 

1 1 22 Sigurd I. alone. 

1 130 Magnus IV. and Harald IV. 

1 136 Sigurd II. 

1136 Inge I., Eystein HI., Hako III., 

and Magnus V. 

1 1 62 Magnus V. alone. 

1 1 86 Swerro. 

1202 Hako III. 

1204 Guthrum. 

1205 Inge II. 
1207 Hako IV. 
1280 Magnus VI. 
1286 Eric II. 
1299 Hako V. 



47° 



SUPPLEMENT. 



13 19 Magnus VII. (Magnus III. of 

Sweden). 
1343 Hako VI. 

1380 Olaf V. (Olaf II. of Denmark). 
1397 Norway utiited to Deiimar/c by 

the Union of Calmar. 

A. D. KINGS OF SWEDEN. 

1000 Olaf Skotkonung. 

1026 Edmund Colbrenner. 

105 1 P2dmund Slemme. 

1056 Stenkil. 

1066 Halstan. 

1090 Inge I., the Great. 

1 1 12 Philip. 

1 1 18 Ingo II. 

1 129 .Swerker I. 

1155 ^'^''^ \y^., the Pious. 

1 161 Charles VII. 

1167 Canute. 

1 199 Swerker II. 

1210 Eric X. 

1216 John I. 

1222 Eric XI., the Stammerer. 

i2c;o Berger Jarl, regent. 

1250 Waldemar I. 

1275 Magnus I. 

1290 Berger II. 

1319 Magnus Smsek (deposed). 

1350 Eric XII. 

1359 Magnus Smak restored. 

1363 Albert of Mecklenberg. 

1397 Sweden united with Denmark by 

the Union of Calmar. 
1412 Eric XIII. 
1440 Christopher. 
144S Charles III. 
147 1 An interregnum. 
1483 John II. (John I. of Denmark.) 

1502 An interregnum. 

1503 Steno Sture I. 
15 12 Steno Sture II. 

1520 Christian II. of Denmark. 

House of Vasa. 
1523 Gustavus Vasa. 
1560 Eric XIV. 
1569 John III. • 
1592 .Sigismund. 
1600 Charles IX. 
161 1 Gustavus Adolphus. 
1632 Christina (abdicated). 
1654 Charles X. 
1660 Charles XI. 
1697 Charles XII. 
1718 Ulrica Eleanora. 
1721 Frederick of Hesse Cassel. 
175 1 Adolphus Frederick. 
1771 Gustavus III. (murdered.) 



1792 Gustavus IV. (deposed. y 
1809 Charles XIII. 

Kings of Sweden and Norway. — House 

of Bernadotte. 
1 81 8 Charles XIV. 
1844 Oscar I. 
1859 Charles XV. 
1872 Oscar II. 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 



A.D 


House of Burgundy' 




"39 


Alfonso I. (Son of Henry of Bur- 




gundy.) 




1 185 


Sancho I. 




1212 


Alfonso II., the Fat. 




1223 


Sancho II., the Idle. 




1248 


Alfonso III. 




1279 


Denis (the " Father of his 
try.") 


Coun- 


1325 


Alfonso IV., the Brave. 




1357 


Pedro the Severe. 




1367 


Ferdinand I. 




1385 John I., the Bastard. 




1433 


Duarte (Edward). 




1438 


Alfonso v., the African. 




1481 


John II., the Perfect. 




1495 


Manuel the Great. 




1521 


John III., the Great. 




1557 


Sebastian. 




1578 


Henry. 




1580 


Antonio. 




1580 


Portugal unitea with Spain fot 




sixty years. 






House of Braganza. 




1640 John IV. 




1656 


Alfonso VI. 




1683 


Pedro II. 




1706 John V. 




1750 


Joseph. 




1777 


Pedro III. and Maria I. 




1786 


Maria I. 




1816 


John VI. 




1826 


Pedro IV. 




1826 


Maria II. 




1853 


Pedro V. 




1861 


Luis II. 





KINGS OF SPAIN. 
A. D. House of Trastamara. 
1479 Ferdinand and Isabella. 

Austrian House of Haps burg. 
1 5 16 Charles I. (Emperor Charles V 

of Germany). 
1556 Philip II. 
1598 Philip III. 
1621 Philip IV. 
1666 Charles II. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



471 



House of Bourbon. 
1700 Philip V. (of Anjou.) 
1746 Ferdinand VI. 
1759 Charles III. 
1788 Charles IV. 

House of Bonaparte. 
1808 Joseph Bonaparte. 

House of Bourbon. 
1813 Ferdinand VII. 
1833 Isabella II. 
1868 An interregnum. 

House of Savoy. 
187 1 Amadeo. 

1873 Spanish Republic. 

House of Bottrbon. 

1874 Alfonso XII. 

SULTANS OF TURKEY. 

A. D. 

1299 Othman, Osman, or Ottoman. 

1326 Orchan. 

1360 Amurath or Murad I. (murdered.) 

1389 Bajazet I. (died a prisoner.) 

1403 Solyman I. (dethroned). 

1410 Musa-Chelebi. 

141 3 Mohammed I. 

1421 Amurath, or Murad II. 

145 1 Mohammed II. 

1481 Bajazet II. 

15 12 Selim I. 

1520 Solyman II., the Magnificent. 

1566 Selim II. 

1574 Amurath, or Murad III. 

1595 Mohammed III. 

1603 Ahmed, or Achmet I. 

1617 Mustapha I. (deposed.) 

1618 Osman II. (murdered.) 

1622 Mustapha I. restored and mur- 

dered. 

1623 Amurath, or Murad IV. 
1640 Ibrahim (murdered). 
1648 Mohammed IV. (deposed.) 
1687 Solyman III. 

1691 Ahmed, or Achmet II. 

1695 Mustapha II. (deposed.) 

1703 Ahmed,or Achmet III. (deposed.) 

1730 Mahmoud I., or Mohammed V. 

1754 Osman ill. 

,1757 Mustapha III. 

1774 Abdul-Hamid I. 

1789 Selim HI. (deposed and mur- 
dered.) 

1807 Mustapha IV. (deposed and mur- 
dered.) 



1808 Mahmoud II., or Mohammed VI. 
1839 Abdul-Medjid. 

1861 Abdul-Aziz (murdered.) 

1876 Amurath, or Murad V. (deposed.) 
1876 Abdul-Hamid II. 

DYNASTIES AND LATE EMPER- 
ORS OF CHINA. 

B. C. Ancient Dynasties. 
2207 Hia dynasty. 
1767 Shang " 
1 1 22 Chow " 

256 Tsin " 

207 Hang « 

A. D. The Three Kingdoms. 
220 Shohang dynasty (to 263). 
220 Goei dynasty in the North (to 

265). 
220 El dynasty in the South (to 280). 

MedicBval Dynasties. 

2(ii~^ Tsin dynasty. 

420 U-ta dynasty. 

589 Sui dynasty. 

617 Tang dynasty, 

907 Hehu-uta dynasty. 

960 Song dynasty. 
1279 Mogul Khans, 
1368 Ming dynasty. 

Ta-tsingf or Mantchoo-Tartar Dy- 
nasty. 
1644 Shun-tche. 
1662 Kang-hi. 
1722 Yong tching. 
1735 Kien-long, 
1795 Kea-king". 
1820 Taou-kwang, 
1850 Hien-fung. 

1862 Yong-chi. 
1875 Kuang-su. 

MOGUL EMPERORS OF INDIA. 
A. D. 

1525 Baber. 
1530 Humayan. 
1556 Akbar. 
1605 Jehanghir. 
1627 Shah Jehan I. 
1659 Aurungzebe. 
1707 Bahadur Shah. 
17 1 2 P"arokhsir. 
1 7 19 Mohammed Shah, 
1748 Ahmed Shah. 
1754 Alamgir. 
1756 Shah Jehan II. 
1761 Shah Alum (empire ended in 
1761). 



472 



SUPPLEMENT. 



SHAHS OF MODERN PERSIA. 



A. D 

1501 

1523 
1576 

1577 
1582 
1628 
1641 
1666 
1694 



1722 
1725 
1730 
1732 
1736 

1747 

1751 
1759 
1779 



1795 

1798 

1^34 
1848 



Suffean Dynasty. 
Ismail I. 
Tamasp I. 
Ismail II. 

Mohammed Meerza. 
Abbas the Great, 
Shah Sophi I. 
Abbas II. 
Shah Sophi II. 
Hussein (deposed). 

Different Dynasties. 

Mahmoud, (Afghan chief). 

Asharf (usurper). 

Tamasp II. 

Abbas III. 

Nadir Shah (Kouli Khan), mur- 
dered. 

Shah Rokh. 

An interregnum. 

Kureem Khan. 

Rival Shahs and assassinations 
till 1795. 

Turcoman Dyn isty. 
Aga-Mohammed Khan (murdered 

1797)- 
Futteh Ali-Shah. 
Mohammed Shah. 
Nasr-ul-Deen, or Nassr-ed-Deen. 



EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 

House of Hapsburg-Lorraine. 
A. D. 

1804 Francis I. (formerly Archduke of 

Austria, and Emperor Francis 

II. of Germany.) 
1835 Ferdinand. 
1848 Francis Joseph. 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

House of Hohenzollern-Brande)iburg. 

A. D. 

1 701 Frederick I. (son of Frederick 
William, the Great Elector of 
Brandenburg, i 640- i 688.) 

17 1 3 Frederick William I. 

1740 Frederick the Great. 

1786 Frederick William II. 

1797 Frederick William HI. 

1840 Frederick William IV. 

1861 William I. (became Emperor of 
Germany in 187 1.) 

KINGS OF BAVARIA. 
A. D. 

1805 Maximilian Joseph I. 



1825 Louis I. (abdicated.) 
1848 Maximilian Joseph II. 
1864 Louis II. 

KINGS OF WURTEMBERG, 
A. D. 

1805 Frederick I. 
181 6 William I. 
1864 Charles I. 

KINGS OF HANOVER. 
A. D. 
1814 Geo. William Frederick (George 

III. of England). 

1S20 Geo. Augustus Frederick (George 

IV. of England). 

1830 William Henry (William IV. of 
England). 

1837 Ernest Augustus (Duke of Cum- 
berland). 

1 85 1 George V. (kingdom annexed to 
Prussia, 1866.) 

KINGS OF SAXONY. 
A. D. 

1806 Frederick Augustus I. 
1827 Anthony Clement. 
1S36 Frederick Augustus II. 

1854 John (kingdom annexed to Prussia, 
1866.) 

KINGS OF HOLLAND. 
A. D. House of Bonaparte. 
1806 Louis Bonaparte (till iSio). 

House of Orange, or jVassau. 
1814 William I. 
1840 William II. (abdicated). 
1849 William ill. 

KINGS OF BELGIUM. 
A. D. House of Saxe-Coburg. 
1830 Leopold I. 
i8b4 Leopold II. 

KINGS OF GREECE. 
.7. D. House of Bavaria. 
1833 Otho (deposed 1862). 

House of Denmark. 
1863 George I. 

KINGS OF ITALY. 
A. D. House of Savoy. 

1861 Victor Emmanuel (formerly King 

of Sardinia). 
1878 Humbert. 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



473 



EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 
A. D. House of Braganza. 

1822 Dom Pedro I. (abdicated.) 
1 83 1 Dom Pedro II. 

KING OF SERVIA, 
A. D. 

1882 Milan. 

KING OF ROUMANIA. 
A. D. House of Hohenzollern. 
188 1 Charles. 

BRITISH GOVERNORS AND 
VICEROYS OF INDIA. 
A. D. Governors- General. 

1772 Warren Hastings. 

1785 Sir John MacPherson. 

1786 Lord Cornvvallis. 
1793 Sir John Shore. 
1796 Lord Cornwallis. 
1798 Sir Alured Clarke. 
1798 Lord Mornington. 
1805 Lord Cornwallis. 
1805 Sir Hilaro Barlow. 
1807 Lord Minto. 

1813 Marquis of Hastings. 

1823 Hon. John Adam. 

1823 Right Hon. George Canning. 

1823 Lord Amherst. 

1828 Hon. Wm. Butterworth Bayley. 

1828 Lord Wm. Cavendish Bentinck. 

1835 Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalf. 

1836 Lord Auckland. 
1842 Lord EUenborough. 

1844 William Wilberforce Bird. 
1844 Sir Henry Hardinge. 
1848 Lord Dalhousie. 
1855 Lord Canning. 

Viceroys. 
1858 Lord Elgin. 
1863 Lord Lawrence. 
1868 Lord Mayo (assassinated). 
1872 Lord North brook. 
1876 Lord Lytton. 
1 88 1 Marquis of Ripon. 

PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED 

STATES. 
A. D. 

1789 George Washington (of Virginia). 
1797 John Adams (of Massachusetts). 
1801 Thomas Jefferson (of Virginia). 
1809 James Madison (of Virgina). 
1817 James Monroe (of Virginia). 
1825 John Quincy Adams (of Massa- 
chusetts). 
1829 Andrew Jackson (of Tennessee). 



Pachas. 



1837 Martin Van Buren (of New York), 
1 84 1 Wm. Henry Harrison (of Ohio). 
1841 John Tyler' (of Virginia). 
1845 James Knox Polk (of Tennessee). 

1849 Zachary Taylor (of Louisiana). 

1850 Millard Fillmore (of New York). 

1853 Franklin Pierce (of New Hamp- 

shire). 
1857 James Buchanan (of Penn'a). 
1861 Abraham Lincoln (of Illinois). 
1865 Andrew Johnson (of Tennessee). 
1869 Ulysses Simpson Grant (of Ills.). 
1877 Rutherford Burchard Hayes (of 

Ohio). 
1881 James Abram Garfield (of Ohio). 
1881 Chester Allan Arthur (of New 

York). 

PACHAS AND KHEDIVES OF 
EGYPT. 
A. D. 
1805 Mehemet Ali. 

1848 Ibrahim Pacha. 

1849 Abbas Pacha. 

1854 Said Pacha. J 

1863 Ismail Pacha. | Khedives. 
1879 Tewhk Pacha. J 

EMPERORS AND PRESIDENTS 
OF MEXICO. 

A. D. Emperor. 

1822 Don Augustin Iturbide (driven 
offin 1823 and shot in 1824). 

Presidents. 
1825 Guadalupe Victoria. 

1829 Guerrero. 

1830 Bustamente. 

1832 Pedraza. 

1833 Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. 
1837 Bustamente. 

1 841 Santa Anna. 

1845 Herrera. 

1846 Paredes. 
1846 Santa Anna. 
1848 Herrera. 
185 1 Arista. 

1853 Santa Anna. 

1854 Alvarez. 
1856 Comonfort. 
1858 Zuloaga. 
i860 Benito Juarez. 

Emperor and Presidents. 
1864 Maximilian of Austria, Emperor 

(deposed and shot in 1867.) 
1864 Benito Juarez, President. 
1872 Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. 
1877 Porfirio Diaz. 
1 88 1 Gonzalez. 



INDEX. 



Abbas the Great, 214. 

Abbassides, dynasty of the, 132. 

Abdel Kader, 337. 

Abraham, 24. 

Abubekir, 230. 

Academy, French, founded, 233. 

Achcean League, 64, 65. 

Acre, siege and capture of, by Crusaders, 155 ; 
by Seljuk Turks, 157; by the Egyptians, 
336 ; by the British, 336 ; siege of, by Bo- 
naparte, 296. 

Actium, battle of, 100. 

jEgos-potamos, battle of, 51. 

iEneas, 418. 

^tolian League, 64. 

Africa, circumnavigation of, by VascodaGama, 
187. 

Ages, the Dark, 124-140. 

Agesilaus, 53. 

Agincourt, battle of, 167, 172. 

Albert I. of Germany, 162; IL, 164; of Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha, 336. 

Albigenses, crusade against, 158, 159. 

Alcibiades, 51. 

Alexander the Great, career of, 60-63 ; his suc- 
cessors, 63-69. 

Alexander I. of Russia, 274, 308, 311, 313, 328, 
332; 11. of Russia, 355, 358, 366; IIL of 
Russia, 366, 370. 

Alexandria, founding of, 61 ; museum and li- 
brary of, 65; library destroyed by fire, 97; 
by the Saracens, 131 ; city bombarded by a 
British fleet, 369. 

Alexis Romanoff, 239. 

Alfred the Great, 139. 

Alhambra, 179. 

AH, 131. 

Alfonso VL of Castile, 178; X.,178; XL, 178; V. 
ofAragon, 178; I. of Portugal, 178 ; III., 
178; XII. of Spain, 363, 366. 

Alliance, the Holy, 328, 329. 

Allyates, 29, 30. 

Alphabet, the Phoenician, 23. 

Alsace-Lorraine, 362. 

Alva, Duke of, 205. 

Amadeus of Spain, 360, 363. 

America, discovery of, 187, 188, i8g ; England's 
colonies in North, 240-249 ; revolutions in 
Spanish, 231. 

American Revolution, 274-284. 

Amiens, Peace of, 308. 

Amphitheatre in Rome, 94, 101, 102, 108, 121. 

Amphictyonic Council, 41. 

Amurath I., Sultan, 184; II., 185; V., 364. 

Ancus Martius, 75. 

Anna of Russia, 261. 

Anne of Austria, 233 ; of England, 232, 254, 261. 

Anglo-Saxons in Britain, 126. 

Antioch, founding of, 66 ; capture of, by Cru- 
saders, 152. 

Antiochus the Great, 65, 67, 87. 

Antony, Mark, 96, 98, 99, 100. 

Appius Claudius, the Decemvir, 78, 79 ; the 
Blind, 83. 

Aqueducts, Roman, 83. 

Arabs, early history of, 129 

Aratus of Sicyon, 64, 65. 

Arbela, battle of, 61. 

Arcadius, 177. 

Archaeology, definition of 10 ; in the nineteenth 
century, 375. 



Architecture, Egyptian, 17; Chaldsean, 18; 
Hindoo, 33 ; Persian, 33 ; Greek, orders of, 
55 ; Gothic, 148. 

Archons, Athenian, 41, 45. 

Areola, battle of, 295. 

Argonautic Expedition, 40, 41, 418. 

Aristides, 48, 50. 

Armada, Spanish, 211, 212. 

Art, Grecian, 55, 71; Italian, 216, 253, 305; 
German, 216, 389 ; Flemish, 253; English, 
French, and Spanish, 253, 305, 389. 

Arts, Assyrian, 21 : Babylonian, 22 ; Chaldsean, 
19 ; Egyptian, 17. 

Artaxerxes Mnenon, 52 ; Artaxerxes, first of 
the Sassanidee, no. 

Arj'ans, branches of the, 12, 13. 

Assembly, French Legislative, 289 ; French 
National, in 17S9, 286; in 1848, 338; in 
1871, 362; German National, 340; Prus- 
sian National, 340. 

Assassins, sect of the, 159. 

Assyrian Empire, 20; fall of, 21. 

Astronomy, Chaldsean, 20, 21 ; Ptolemaic, 71 ; 
modern, 215, 250, 251, 299, 378. 

Astyages, 31. 

Athens, early history of, 44, 45 ; under Arist- 
ides, Themistocles,Cimon and Pericles, 48, 
49, 50; fall of, 51, 52; revolutions in, 51; 
Thirty Tyrants in, 52 ; Council of Ten in, 
52- 

Attila, 118. 

Auerstadt, battle of, 310. 

Augustan Age of Rome, 102 ; of England, 301, 
of France, 235, 251. 

Augustinlan monks, 145. 

Augustulus, JJomulus, 119. 

Augustus Caesar, 100-103. 

Augustus II. of Saxony, and Poland, 258. 

Austerlitz, battle of, 309. 

Austrian Empire, establishment of, 310; revo- 
lutions in, 338, 339; reorganization of, 359. 

Austrian Succession, War of the, 263, 264, 265. 

Austro-Hungarian War, 338, 339. 

Austro-Sardinian War, 341. 

Aztecs, 213. 

Baal, 22, 23, 28. 

Babylon, description of, 22. 

Babylonian Empire, 21, 22 ; conquest of, 22. 

Bagdad, rise of, 132 ; end of the caliphate of, 

184 ; capture of, by the Moguls, 184. 
Bajazet, 184. 
Balaklava, battle of, 355. 
Bannockburn, battle of, 170, 180. 
Balance of Power, origin of the system of the, 

168, 191. 
Banking, origin of, 149. 
Barebone's Parliament, 227. 
Bartholomew, St., Massacre of, 208. 
Bastile, capture and destruction of the, 287. 
Baths, Roman, 121. 
Bautzen, battle of, 314. 
Bayard, Chevalier, 191, 193. 
Becket, Thomas i, 169. 
Belgian Revolution, 334. 
Belisarius, 127. 
Belshazzar, 22. 
Benedict of Nursia, 145. 
Benedictine monks, 145. 
Bernadotte, 313, 314, 315. 
Bernard, St., 153. 



(475) 



476 



INDEX. 



Bill of Rigl.ts, 231, 232, 394, 395. 

Bismarck, 358, 360, 362, 363, 370. 

Blaclc Hole of Calcutta, 267. 

Blenheim, battle or, 255. 

Blucher, 315, 316, 317. 

Boleyn, Anne, 201, 202. 

Bolivar, Simon, 331. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, 293, 295, 296, 297, 308- 
317 ; Jerome, 311 ; Joseph, 310, 311 ; Louis, 
310, 313; Louis Napoleon, 337, 338, 353, 
354 ; Lucien, 297 

Boniface, St., 134 ; Boniface VIIL, 163, i65. 

Bosworth, battle of, 173. 

Bourbon, Constable de, 193 ; Dynasty of, 209. 

Boyne, battle of the, 232. 

Bozzaris, Marco, victory and death of, 332. 

Brahma, 34. 

Brahmanism, 12, 34, 35. 

Brahmans, 33. 

Brennus, 64, 79. 

Britain, Cffisar's invasions of, 96 ; Roman con- 
quest of, 106. 

Bruce, Robert, 170, 180; David, 171, 180. 

Brunswick, Ferdinand of, 268, 290, 310 ; House 
of, 261. 

Brutus, Lucius Junius, 76,421; Marcus Junius, 

„ 98,99- 

Buddha, 35. 

Buddhism, 12, 34, 33, 36. 

Burgundians, 118. 

Burgundy, Duchy of, 167, 168. 

Burleigh, Cecil, Lord, 212. 

Byzantium, foimding of, 42; capture of, 49: 

made the Roman imperial capital by Con- 

stantine, 114. 

Cabot, John, 188; Se-K-tstinn, 188, 189. 

Cade, Jack, insurrection of, 172. 

Cadmsea, 417; seizjro of, by the Spartans, 53. 

Cadmus, 417. 

Caesar, Julius, 95-98; Augustus, 100-103. 

Calais, English capture of, 171 ; loss of, 203. 

Caligula, 103. 

Caliphs, 130-133. * 

Calonne, 285. 

Calvin, John, 200. 

Calvinism, rise of, 200; in France, Scotland, 

and Holland, 200, 201. 
Cambyses, 32. 
Camillus, 79, 80, 423. 
Campbell, Sir Colin, 356. 
Campljells, clan of the, iRo, 232. 
Campo Formio, Peace of, 295. 
Canada, French settlement of, 246,247 ; English 

conquest of, 247, 269 ; American invasions 

of, 277: rebellion in, 326. 
Cannae, battle of, 86. 
Canute the Great, 139, 140, iSi. 
Capet, Hugh, 136, 165 ; dynasty of, 165. 
Caracalla, 109. 
Carlists, 336, 363. 
Carlovingian dynasty, founding of, 133 ; in 

France, Germany, and Italy, 136; end of, 

in France, 165. 
Carthage, founding of, 23, 28; history of, 28; 

fall of, 28, 88, 89 ; siege of, 131. 
Casimir the Great, 1S2; IV., 183; John, 237. 

238. 
Cassander, 63, 64. 
Cassius, Caius, 98, 99; Quintus, 96; Spurius, 

77- 
Castes, Egyptian, 18 ; Hindoo, 34. 
Castile, kingdom of, 133, 178. 
Catharine of Aragon, 201, 202 ; L of Russia, 

2bo, :i6i ; n. of Russia, 270, 273, 274, 281 ; 

de Medlcis, 207, 208. 
Catholics, persecution of, in England, 202, 209. 
Catiline, conspiracy of, 95. 
Cato the Elder, the Censor, 88, 90 ; the Younger, 

suicide of, 97. 



Caucasian race, branches of, 12, 13, 14. 

Cavaliers, 223. 

Cavour, Count, 356. 

Celts, 14, 124. 

Chaeronea, battle of, 59. 

Chaldjea, 19. 

Chalons, battle of, 118. 

Charlem.igne, 134, 135. 

Charles Albert of Bavaria, 263, 264 ; of Sar- 
dinia, 341. 

Charles Edward the Pretender, 264, 265. 

Charles Martel, 126, 132. 

Charles the Bold, 167, 16S. 

Charles the Simple, 139. 

Charles L of England, 221-226 ; his e.\ecution, 
22 s ; Charles IL, 228-230 ; H. of Spain, 254 ; 
111,270; IV., 311 ; V. of France, 167; VI., 
167; VII., 168; VIIL, 168; IX., 208; X., 
333; IV. of Germany, 162; V., 192; VI., 
256; VII., 264; X. of Sweden, 237; XL, 
23S; XII., 257-260; XIII, 313. 

China, Ancient, 36. 

Chartists, 336. 

Cheops, 18. 

Chivalry, 142, 143. 

Christ, birth of, 69, 102; crucifixion of, 69, 103; 
his religion, 103. 

Christianity, rise and progress of, 112, 113. 

Christian Fatliers, 115, 116. 

Christian I. of Denmark, 181; II., iSi, 200; 
IV., 218, 2x9, 220, 237 ; v., 238 ; VII, 273 ; 
IX., 358. 

Chronology, eras of, 10. 

Church, in the Middle Ages, 143, 144. 

Church and State in Germany, 363. 

Cicero, 95, 98, 99. 

Cincinnatus, 78, 422. 

Cities in the Middle Ages, 148, 158. 

Citizenship, Roman, 75 ; extension of, 109. 

Civilization, Egj'ptian, 16 ; Chaldsean, 19 ; As- 
syrian, 21 ; Babylonian, 22 ; Creek, 46, 54, 
56, 70; Roman, loi, 102, 119; Arabian, 
132; Mediaeval European, 140-150; Mod- 
ern, 214, 249, 297, 372. 

Clarendon, Constitutions of, 169 ; Earl of, 229, 
252. 

Claudius, 104. 

Cleopatra, 96, 97, 99, 100. 

Clergy in the Middle Ages, 144. 

Chve, Robert, 266, 267, 270, 272. 

Clovis, 125. 

Code Napoleon, 308. 

Codrus, devotion of, 41. 

Coligny, Admiral, 207, 208. 

Coliseum, 102, 105. 

Colonies, Phosnician, 23; Grecian, 42; Cartha- 
ginian, 28 ; English, in North America, 240- 
249; Spanish, in America, 213 ; French, in 
North America, 246, 247 ; Dutch, 206. 

Columbus, Christopher, 187, 18S. 

Commerce, Egyptian, 17, 66 ; Babylonian, 22; 
Phtenician, 23; Carthaginian, 28; Early 
English, Italian, 148, 149, 158; Venetian, 
174; English, under Elizabeth, 212 ; Modern 
English, 374. 

Commodus, 108. 

Commonwealth of England, 226. 

Compass, Mariner's, invention of, 186. 

Conde, Prince of, 207 ; the great general, 219, 
233. 234, 235- 

Confederation of the Rhine, 310. 

Confucius, 36. 

Constance, Council of, 163; Peace of, 160. 

Constantine the Great, 112, 113, 114. 

Constantine Paleologus, 185. 

Constantinople, imperial capital, 114; capture 
of, 185. 

Consulate and the Empire under Bonaparte, 
308-317- 

Continental System, 311. 



INDEX. 



477 



Copenhagen, siege of, by Charles X. of Sweden, 

237; by Charles XII., 258; battle of, 308 ; 

British bombardment of, 311 ; Peace of, 

238. 
Corday, Charlotte, 293. 

Corintn, in Greece, 50, 53 ; destruction of, 65, 88. 
Coriolanus, 77, 421. 
Corn Laws, repeal of, 336. 
Coronea, battle of, 53. 
Cosmo de Medici, 175. 
Cranmer, Thomas, 201, 202, 203. 
Crassns, 94, 96. 
Crepy, Peace of, 195. 
Crecy, battle of, 166, 171. 
Crimea, Russian conquest of, 274. 
Crimean War, 354, 355. 
Croesus, 29, 30, 31. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 222-228; Richard, 228; 

Thomas, 202. 
Crusades, origin of, 150; First, 151; Second, 

153; Third, 154; Fourth, 155; Fifth, 156; 

Sixth, 156; Seventh, 157; results of, 157; 

against thie Albigenses, 158. 
Culloden, battle of, 265. 
Cuna.xa, battle of, 52. 
Cuneiform characters, 19. 
Curiatii, 420. 

Custozza, battles of, 341, 359. 
Cyaxares, 29, 30, 31. 
Cyrus the Great, 22, 31 ; the Younger, 52. 

Damascus, Ancient, 28, 29 ; capture of, by Sara- 
cens, 130; siege of, by the Crusaders, 154. 

Danton, 289, 290, 292, 294. 

Dantonists, fall of the, 294. 

Darius Hystaspes, 32 ; his invasion of Greece, 
47, 48. 

Darius Codomannus, 32, 60, 61 ; his assassina- 
tion, 61. 

Dark Ages, 123-140. 

David, 25, 26. 

Decemvirs, 78. 

Decius, devotion of, 81 ; Emperor, no. 

Decian persecution, no. 

Declaration of Independence, 278, 412. 

Democracy in Athens, 45; in Rome, 78; in the 
i8th century, 297; in the 19th century, 372. 

Demosthenes, 63, 71. 

Desideriiis, 134. 

Dictator, the first in Rome, 76. 

Diet of Worms, 196; of Spire, 197; of Augs- 
burg, 197; of Frankfort, 328; Polish, 183; 
Hungarian, 182. 

Diocletian, ni, 112. 

Directory, the French, 295 ; overthrow of, 297. 

Disraeli, Benjamin, 365, 367. 

Domitian, 106. 

Doria, Andrea, 175. 

Dorian conquest of Greece, 41. 

Draco, Laws of 44. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 212. 

Dramatists, Athenian, 46, 54 ; English, 215, 252, 
302 ; French, 251 ; Spanish, 253. 

Drogheda, massacre of, 226. 

Dumourier, General, 291, 292. 

Dutch Republic, rise of the, 205, 206. 

Dynasties, Ptolemies, 65; Seleucidse, 66; Mac- 
cabees, 68; Arsacida;, 67; Sassanidse, 109, 
131; Ommiyades, 131; Abbassides, 132; 
Norman in England, 140, i6g ; in Lower 
Italy, 140, 177; Mirovingian, 125; Carlo- 
vingian, 133-136, 165; Saxon in Germany, 
137; Frankish in Gernaany, 137; Anglo- 
Saxon in England, ii|b Danish in Eng- 
land, 139 ; Hohenstauf^i in Germany, 159- 
161: Lu.xemburg in Germany, 162, 163; 
Hapsburg in Germany, i6r, 164; Capet in 
France, 165, 166; Valois in France, 166- 
168; Plantagenet in England, 169-173; 
Bourbon in France, 209 ; Tudor in Eng- 



land, 173; Stuart in England, 221-232; 
Brunswick in England, 261. 

Eastern Empire, 116, 117, 126-128; temporary 
subversion of, 156; end of, 185. 

East India Company, chartering of, 212, 265, 
266. 

Edgehill, battle of, 224. 

Edict of Cyrus, 27, 31. 

Edict of Nantes, 209 ; revocation of 236. 

Education, Grecian, 57; Roman, 121; in the 
Middle Ages, 146 ; in the sixteenth century, 
215 ; in the nineteenth centry, 373. 

Edward the Black Prince, 167, 171. 

Edward the Confessor, 140. 

Edward I. of England, 170; II. 170; III., 166, 
171 ; IV., 173 ; v., 173 ; VI., 202. 

Egbert, 126, 139. 

Egypt, 15-19 ; antiquity of, 15 ; civilization, 16, 
17; commerce, 17; hieroglyphics, 375; 
cities, 17; architecture, 17 ; sculpture, 17; 
pyramids, 17, 18 ; mummies, 19 ; castes, 18; 
religion, 18 ; periods of, 15, 16 ; conquest of, 
by the Persians, 16, 31. 

Elba, Napoleon's e.xile to, 315, 316. 

Elizabeth of England, 209-212 ; of Russia, 261, 
266, 270. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 346, 415. 

Embalming, Egyptian practice of, 19. 

Enghien, Duke d', execution of the, 309. 

England, founding of, 126 ; Christianization of, 
126; during the Danish invasions, 139; 
Norman conquest of, 140 ; under the Nor- 
man and Plantagenet dynasties, 169-173; 
under the Tudors, 173, 190, 201, 209 ; under 
the Stuarts, 221-232 ; civil war in, 223, 224; 
Revolution of 1688 in, 231,232; House of 
Brunswick in, 261 ; Reforms in 335, 336, 
359> 360 ; recent wars, 366, 367 ; war in 
Egypt, 369, 370. 

Epaminondas, 53. 

Era, Christian, true beginning of, 102. 

Essex, kingdom of, 126; Earl of, 212. 

Essling, battle of, 312. 

Ethehed II., 139. 

Ethiopia, 28. 

Ethnology, 11, 12, 13, 14. 

Ethnological tables, 13, 14. 

Etruscans, 73. 

Eugene, Prince, 240, 254, 255, 256, 261, 262. 

Eugene Beauharnais, 309. 

Eugenie de Montijo, 354. 

Eurymedon, battle of 49. 

Excommunication, 144. 

Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, 25. 

Eylau, battle of, 310. 

Ezra, 27. 

Fabius Maximus, 85. 

Fathers of the Christian Church, 115, 116. 

Fawkes, Guy, 221. 

Ferdinand the Catholic, of Aragon, 179, 190, 
191; Ferdinand I. of Austria, 192; I. of 
Germany, 198; II. of Germany, 217-220; 
III. of Germany, 220 ; Ferdinand, Emperor 
of Austria, 338, 339. 

Feudal System, 140, 141, 142. 

Fiefs, 141. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold, 192. 

Flodden Field, battle of, 181, 191. 

Florence in the Middle Ages, 175, 176. 

Florida, discovery of, by John Ponce de Leon, 
213 : cession of, by Spain to the United 
States, 324. 

France, founding of, 125 ; tinder the Merovin- 
gians, 125 ; under the Carlovingians, 133, 
136; under the Capetian dynasty, 165, 166 ; 
under the House of Valois, 166, 167; under 
the Bourljons, 207. 

Francis I. of France, 191-195; II., 207; I. of 



478 



INDEX. 



Germany, 264; II., 310; I. of Austria, 310, 
328, 338; Francis Joseph, 338, 359. 

Franco-German War, 360, 361, 362. 

Frankfort, Diet of, 328, 340; Definitive Peace 
of, 362. 

Franklin, Benjamin, 299 ; Sir John, 375. 

Franks, conquest of Gaul by the, 125 ; empire 
of, under Charlemagne, 134, 135; dissolu- 
tion of the empire of, 135. 

Frederick Barbarossa, 154, 160: Frederick II. 
of Germany, 156, 160, 161 ; III., 164; F"red- 
erick William, the Great Elector of Brand- 
enburg, 238; Frederick I. of Prussia, 257; 
the Great, 263-270; Frederick William I., 
263; II,, 273; III., 310, 32S, 340; IV., 
340. 

Frederick IV. of Denmark, 254. 

French Revolution, 284-297. 

Fulton, Robert, 320. 

Gades, 23. 

Galba, 105. 

Gama, Vasco da, 187. 

Games, the four Grecian national, 42. 

Garibaldi, Joseph, 341, 356, 357. 

Gaul, 79. 

Gauls, invasion of Italy and burning of Rome 
by, 79 ; their invasion of Greece and settle- 
ment in Asia Minor, 64. 

Genoa, republic of, in the Middle Ages, 175. 

Genseric, iig. 

George I. of England, 201 ; II., 261, 264; III.. 
270. 274. 329; IV., 329, 335; George of 
Greece, 358. 

Germanicus, 103. 

German Liberation, War of, 314, 315. 

Germans, ancient, 103. 

Germany, Roman invasion of, 103 ; empire of, 
in the Middle Ages, 133, 159 ; revolutions 
in 1830, 335 ; in 1848, 340 ; new empire of, 
362. 

Ghibellines, 159-162. 

Gibraltar, origin of the name, 132 ; capture of, 
by the English, 255 ; siege of, 283. 

Gioja, Flavio, 186. 

Girondists, 289, 291, 292. 

Gladstone, William Ewart, 360, 368, 382. 

Godfrey of Bouillon, 152, 153. 

Good Hope, Cape of, discovered by Bartholo- 
mew Diaz, 187; doubled by Vasco da 
Gama, 187. 

Goths, their invasions of the Roman Empire, 
no, 116, 117; pillage of Rome, 118. 

Gracchus, Tiberius, 91 ; Caius, 91. 

Granicus, battle of the, 60. 

Great Britain, origin of the name of, 261. 

Greece, ancient, history of, 37-72 ; geography 
of. 37; race, 40; religion and mythology, 
37-40 ; states of, 37 ; heroic age of, 40-42 ; 
colonies, 42 ; early history of, 40-42 ; per- 
iod of the lawgivers, 42-45 ; Persian inva- 
sion of, 47-49 ; age of Pericles, 49, 50 ; Pel- 
oponnesian War, 50, 51 ; Spartan and 
Theban supremacy, 52, 53; Macedonian 
Empire and its dissolution, 59-64 ; later 
history and Roman conquest of, 64, 65, 88; 
civilization of, 46, 54, 70 ; philosophy, liter- 
ature, and art of, 46, 54, 70. 

Greek Revolution, 332, 333 ; of 1862, 358. 

Gregory the Great, 126; VII., 137, 138, 144; 
IX., 161; XIII., 199, 208. 

Grey, Lady Jane, 203 ; Earl, 335. 

Guelfs, 159-160. 

Guise, Duke of, 207, 208. 

Gunpowder, invention of, 186. 

Gunpowder Plot, 221. 

Gustavus Adolphus, 218, 219 ; Vasa, 181, 200. 

Gutenberg, John, 185. 

Habeas Corpus Act, 230, 394. 



Hamilcar, Barcas, 86. 

Hamilton, Alexander, 318, 330. 

Hamites, 14. 

Hannibal, 84-88. 

Hanno, 86. 

Hanseatic League, 148, 161. 

Hapsburg, Rudolf of, i6i ; House of, 162. 

Harald Bluetooth, 181. 

Harald Fairhair, 181. 

Harald Hardrada, 140. 

Hardicanute, 140. 

Harold, 140. 

Harold Harefoot, 140. 

Haroun-al-Raschid, 132. 

Hebrews, the, 24-28. 

Hegira, 10, 129. 

Hellas, 37. 

Hellenes, 40. 

Henry the Fowler, 137; the Saint, 137; III. of 
Germany. 137; IV., 137; V., 138; VI, 160 
VII., 162; I., of England, 169; II., 169 
III., 170; IV., 172: v., 172; VI., 172 
VII., 173, 190; VIIL, 191, 201; I. of 
France, 165 ; 11., 207; HI., 208; IV., 209. 

Henry, Prince of Portugal, 187, 188. 

Heraclidae, Return of the 41. 

Hercules, 40, 417. 

Herod the Great, 68, 103; Agrippa, 69. 

Hierarchy, 143. 

Hiero, King of Syracuse, 83. 

Hieroglyphics, Egj'ptian, 375. 

Hildebrand, 137, 143. 

Hindoos, ancient, 33-36. 

Hipparchus, the usurper, 45. 

Hippias, 45, 47, 48. 

Hohenlinden, battle of, 308. 

Holy Alliance, 328, 329. 

Holy League, 193, 240 

Honorius, 117, 118. 

Horatii, 420. 

Horatius Codes, 421. 

Howard, Catharine, 202; Lord, 211; John, 
306. 

Hugh Capet, 136, 165. 

Huguenots, the, 201, 207, 208, 209 ; persecution 
of the, 236. 

Hundred Days, the, 316. 

Hundred Years' War, 166, 167, 168, 171, 172. 

Hungarians, 136, 137, 181. 

Hungary in the Middle Ages, 181; under the 
House of Hapsburg, 192, 194 ; revolutions 
of 1848 in, 339. 

Huns, 118. 

Huss, John, 164, 165. 

Hussite War, 165. 

Hyder Ali, 272. 

Hyksos, 16. 

Imperator, meaning of the term, 100. 

Incas of Peru, 213. 

Iconoclasts and Iconduli, 128. 

India, ancient, 33 ; Alexander's invasion of, 62 ; 

Mogul empire in, 214; English conquest 

of, 266, 267, 270, 272, 337. 
Indians, American, 188, 189. 
Idumaea, 69. 

Inkerman, battle of, 354, 355. 
Innocent III., 155, 160, 170. 
Inquisition, the Spanish, 145, 179, 109, 204, 205, 

250, 33°- 
Interdict, 144. 
Inventions, of printing, 185; of gunpowder, 

186; of mariner's compass, 186; in the 

17th century, Vjgi ; in the i8th century, 

300 ; in the igfllftentury, 376. 
Ionian Confederacy, 42. 
lonians, 40, 42. 
Ipsus, battle of, 64. 
Ireland, English conquest of, 169 ; rebellions in, 

1598, 212 ; 1641, 223 ; 1650,226; 1689,232; 



INDEX. 



479 



T798, 271 ; 1803, 371 ; legislative union with 

England, 271. 
Isabella I. of Spain, 179, 187, 190; II., 336, 

360. 
Israel, Judges of, 25 ; kingdom of, 26; kings of, 

26. 
Issus, battle of the, 60. 
Italy, ancient, 72 ; mediaeval, 174; revolutions 

in, 1820, 331 ; 1830, 333 ; 1848, 341 ; unifica- 
tion of, 356, 357, 363. 
Iturbide, 331. 
Ivan the Great, 183 ; the Terrible, 184 ; V., 

239. 

Jacob, 24. 

Jacobins of France, 288, 289, 291, 292. 
Jacobites of England and Scotland, 261. 
James I. of England, 221; II., 230, 231: I., 

II., III., IV., v., VI., of Scotland, 180, 

181. 
Janus, 73 ; temple of, 420. 
Jena, battle of, 310. 
Jerusalem, destruction of, by Titus, 105, 106; 

capture of, by the Crusaders, 152, 153 ; 

kingdom of, 153. 
Jesus Christ, birth of, 102; crucifi.xion of, 103. 
Jesus, Society of. 199. 
Jews in the Middle Ages, 149. 
Joan of Arc, 168, 172. 
John of England, 170 ; the Good of France, 

167, 171 ; II. of Portugal, 187. 
Joseph, 24; I. of Germany, 256; II., 273. 
Josephine, 295, 313. 
Joshua, 25. 
Jovian, 115. 

Judah, kingdom of, 26, 27. 
Jugurtha, 92. 
Jugurthine War, 92. 
Julian the Apostate, 114, 115. 
Justinian, reign of, 126-128 ; Code, Institutes, 

and Pandects of, 127. 

Kings, divine right of, 221, 298. 

Knights-errant, 143. 

Knights, dress and arms of, 143. 

Knighthood, ceremonial of, 142. 

Knights Templar, 153, 157; of St. John, 153, 

157 ; Teutonic, 158. 
Kno.\, John, 201, 209, 210. 
Kofifee, king of Ashantee, 367. 
Koran, 130. 

Kosciusko, Thaddeus, 274, 279. 
Kossuth, Louis, 339. 
Kublai Khan, 184. 

Labarum, 113. 

Lafayette, 279, 287, 288, 289, 290,324, 334. 

Lamian War, 63. 

Lancaster, Duke of, 172 ; Henrj' of, 172 ; House 
of, 172. 

Land League, Irish, 368. 

Land-Peace, 165. 

Languages, modern European, 147. 

Latin races, 124, 147. 

Latins, Roman war with the, 81. 

Laua, Archbishop, 222, 223. 

Law, John, 262. 

Laws, of Draco, 44 ; of Solon, 44, 45 ; of Ly- 
curgus, 42, 43 ; of the Twelve Tables, 78 ; 
of Licinius Stolo, 80; the Publian, 77, 78; 
the Terentilian, 78. 

Leagues, the Achaean, 64, 65 ; the jEtolian, 64 ; 
the Lombard, 160 ; the Hanseatic, 148, 
161 ; the Schmalkay^c, 197 ; the Rhenish, 
161 ; the Swabian, 161. 

Learning, mediseval, 146; revival of, i86; mod- 
ern, 215. 

Leicester, Earl of, 170, 206, 212. 

Leipsic, battles of, in 1631, 219; in 1644,220; 
in 1813, 315. 



Leo X., 177, 192, 193, 196; XIII., 363. 

Leonidas, 48, 49. 

Leopold, Dukes of Austria, 15s, 162; I. of Ger- 
many, 220, 235, 236, 237,240, 254, 256; II., 
273 ; of Saxe-Coburg, 334 ; of Hohenzol- 
lern, 360. 

Lepidus, 99. 

Letters, Phajnician, invention of, 23. 

Lettrcs de cachet, 284. 

Leuctra, battle of, 53. 

Leyden, siege of, 205, 206 ; university of, 205. 

Library of Ale.xandria, 66 ; first destruction of, 
97 ; second destruction of, 131. 

Licinian Laws, the, 80. 

Licinius Stolo, 80. 

Lictors, 76. 

Literature, Hebrew, 28; Hindoo, 33; Greek, 
46, 47, 54, 55, 70, 71, 72 ; Latin, 89, 90, 102, 
108; mediaeval Italian, 147; mediaeval Ger- 
man, 148 ; mediaeval English, 148, 171 ; me- 
diaeval French, 148 ; mediaeval Spanish, 
148; modern Italian, 216; modern German, 
304, 305, 388, 389 ; modern Spanish, 216, 
253; modern English, 215, 252, 301, 302, 
379-382; modern French, 216, 251, 303, 
387 ; American, 383-387; Russian, Swedish, 
Danish, 389. 

Ligny, battle of, 316. 

Lodi, battle of, 295. 

Lombard conquest of Northern Italy, 128. 

Lombard League, 160, 176. 

Lombardy, conquest of, by Charlemagne, 134. 

Long Parliament, 222. 

Lorenzo the Magnificent, 175. 

Lorraine, 136, 262, 362. 

Louis le Debonnaire, 135. 

Louis of Bavaria, 162. 

Louis VI. of France, 165; VII., 153, 165; 
VIII., 159, 166; IX., or St. Louis, 156, 
157, 166; X., 166; XL, i68; XII., 168, 
191; XIII., 232, 233 ; XIV., 233-237, 254- 
257; XV., 257, 262, 266,273, 284; XVI., 
284-292; his e.\ecution, 292; XVIII., 316, 

317,329- 

Louis Napoleon, as President, 338, 353 ; coup 
d'etat, 354; as Emperor, 354; his mar- 
riage, 354; his wars, 354, 356, 357, 360; his 
surrender, 361 ; his death, 362. 

Louis Philippe, 334, 337 ; overthrow of, 338. 

Louis the Great, of Hungary and Poland, 182, 
183 ; II. of Hungary, 182, 194. 

Loyola, Ignatius, 299. 

Lucretia, 76, 421. 

Luneville, peace of, 308. 

Luther, Martin, 196, 197; his death, 198. 

Lutzen, battle of, in 1632, 219; in 1813, 314. 

Lydia, kingdom of, early history, 29 ; under 
Croesus, 29 ; conquest of, by Cyrus the 
Great, 30, 31. 

Lycurgus, 42, 43. 

Lysander, 51. 

Lysimachus of Thrace, 64, 66. 

Maccabees, the Jews under the, 68. 
Maccabeus, Judas, 68; Jonathan, 68; Simon, 

63. 
Macedon, under Philip, 59 ; Roman conquest 

of, 65, 88. 
Macedonian Empire, 59-63 ; dissolution of, 64. 
MacMahon, Marshal and President of France, 

361, 364. 
Magellan, Ferdinand, circumnavigation of the 

globe by, 213. 
Magenta, battle of, 356. 
Magi, 33. 

Magna Charta, 170, 393. 
Magn.a Graecia, 42, 72. 
Magnesia, battle of, 65, 87. 
Magyars, 136; defeats of, by German emperors, 



4So 



INDEX. 



Mamelukes in Egj'pt, 156, 157. 

Mamertines, S3. 

Manners and customs, Grecian, 55-58 ; Roman, 

119-123; mediaeval, 150. 
Mantinea, Spartan conquest of, 53 ; battle of, 

53- 

Manufactures, Egyptian, 17; Assyrian, 21; 
Babylonian, 22 ; Phcenician, 23 ; Floren- 
tine, 175 : English, 149, 375.^ 

Marat, 2S9, 290, 292 ; his assassination, 293. 

Marathon, battle of, 48. 

Marengo, battle of, 30S. 

Margaret of Anjou, 173. 

Margareta of Denmark, 181. 

Maria Louisa, 313. 

Maria Theresa, 234, 263. 

Marie Antoinette, 285 ; her execution, 293. 

Marius, 92, 93. 

Marlborough, Duke of, 254, 255, 256, 257. 

Martel, Charles, 126, 132. 

Mary de Medicis, 232, 233. 

Mary I. of England, 203; II., 231, 232 ; Queen 
of Scots, 207, 209, 210, 211 ; of Burgundy, 
164. 

Matilda of England, 169. 

Mattathius, 68. 

Matthias Corvinus, 1S2 ; Matthius, Emperor, 
217. 

Maurice of Saxony, 198 ; of Orange, 206. 

Maximilian I. of Germany, 164, 165, 190, 191, 
192; II., 217; Maximilian of Mexico, 357. 

Mazarin, 233, 234. 

Mazzini, Joseph, 341. 

Medes, 30. 

Median Empire, 30. 

Medo-Persian Empire, rise of, 31 ; decline and 
fall of. 32. 

Medici, Cosmo de, 175; Lorenzo the Magnifi- 
cent, 175. 

Medicis, Catharine de, 207, 208 ; Mary de, 232, 

.233- 
Meistersingers, 148. 
Menschikofi', 260, 355. 
Merovingian dynasty, 125, 126. 
Messenian Wars, 44. 
Metternich, 328, 338, 339. 
Metz, siege of, by Charles V., 198 ; surrender 

of, in 1870, 361. 
Mexico, conquest of, by Cortez, 213 ; inde- 
pendence of, 331 ; revolutions and civil 
wars in, 332; war with the United States, 
327 : French invasion of, and Maximilian's 
empire in, 357. 
Middle Ages, social life in the, 150. 
Milan, duchy of, 176, 
Mihiades, 48. 
Minnesingers, 14S. 
Mirabeau, 2S6, 288. 

Mississippi river, discovery of, by De Soto, 
213 : exploration of, by Joliet, Marquette, 
and La .Salle, 247. 
Mississippi Scheme, 262. 
Mithridaies, Roman wars with, 93, 95. 
Mohammed, 129, 130 ; his successors, 130-133 ; 

Mohammed II. of Turkey, 185; III., 239. 
Moloch, 23, 28. 

Monks in the Middle Ages, 144-146. 
Monmouth, Duke of, 230. 
Moiitfort, Simon de, 170, 394. 
Moors in Spain, 132, 17S. 
Moore, Sir John, 312. 
More, Sir Thomas, 202. 
Moreau, General, 295, 308, 309. 
Morse, Professor Samuel F. B., 326, 376. 
Moscow, burning of, in 1812, 313, 314. 
Moses, 25. 

Mountain, the French Jacobins in the Revolu- 
tion, 289. 
Murat, Joachim, 311, 315, 317. 
Musical composers, modern, 305, 390. 



Mutius Scaevola, 421. 
Mycale, battle of, 49. 
Mystics, 147. 

Mythology, Grecian, 37-40, 417; Roman, 73, 
74, 418. 

Nabonassar, 21. 

Nabopolassar, 21, 22, 30. 

Nadir Shah, 214. 

Nantes, Edict of, 209; revocation of Edict of, 

236. 
Napier, Sir Charles, 355 ; Sir Robert, 366. 
Naples, kingdom of, 161, 177. 
Napoleon Bonaparte, 293, 295, 296, 297, 30S- 

317- 
Napoleon III., 353, 354, 356, 357,360, 361, 362. 
Naseby, battle of, 224. 
National Assembly in France, in 1789, 286; in 

1848, 338; in 1871, 362; in Germany in 

1848, 340; in Prussia in 1848, 340. 
Navarina, battle of, 333. 
Navarre, kingdom of, 178; Henry of, 209. 
Nebuchadnezzar, 21, 22, 24, 27. 
Necker, 2S5, 286, 287. 

Nelson, Admiral Lord Horatio, 296 , 308, 309. 
Nena Sahib, 356. 
Nero, 104. 
Nerva, 106. 

Ney, Marshal, 314, 315, 316, 317. 
Nice, Council of, 114, 115. 

Nicholas of Russia, 333, 334, 336, 339, 354, 355. 
Nicias, peace of, 51. 
Nile, battle of the, 296. 
Nineveh, 20: destruction of, 21. 
Normandy, 139, 165. 
Normans, their ravages, 136, 138, 139, 140 ; their 

settlement in France, 139. 
Norman conquest of England, 140; of Lower 

Italy, 140. 
Nutna Pompilius, 75. 
Nystadt, Peace of, 260, 261. 

Gates, Titus, 230. 

O'Connell, Daniel, 336. 

Octavia, 99, 100, 104. 

Octavius Cjesar, 98, 99, 100. 

Odoacer, 119, 125. 

Olympiad, the first, lo, 42. 

Omar, the Caliph, 130, 131 ; Omar Pacha, 354. 

Ommiyades, dynasty of the, 131. 

Oracles, Grecian, 39, 40. 

Orange, William I. of, 205, 206; III. of, 231. 

Orleans, Maid of, 168, 172; siege of, 168, 172; 

Dukes of, 167, 257, 287, 293, 334. 
Ostracism, origin of, in Athens, 45. 
Otho, of Rome, lo; ; the Great, of Germany, 

137; II., 137; III. ,137; IV. ,160; of Greece, 

333. 357- 
Othman, the Caliph, 131 ; the founder of the 

Ottoman Empire, 184. 
Ottoman Empire, rise of the, 184, 185; decline 

of the, 239, 240. 
Oxenstiern, Axel, 219, 237. 
Oxford, Lord, 257 ; university of, 139,146. 

Painters, the great, of Greece, 55, 71 ; of Italy, 
216, 253; of Germany, 216, 217, 389; o 
the Flemish school, 253; of France, 253, 
3S9 ; of Spain, 253; of England, 305, 389. 

Palace, Mayors of the, 126. 

Palestine, 24, 150-157. 

Pantheon, the, of Rome, 102. 

Paoli, Pascal, 273. 

Papal power in the Middle Ages, 143, 144. 

Papal States, 176, 177. 

Parliament, the English, origin of, 170, 394; 
division of, 171 ; disputes and civil war 
with the Stuarts, 221-232; the Long, 222; 
Barebone's, 227; of Paris, 284. 

Paris, Peace of, in 1763, 270; in 1783,283; in 



INDEX. 



48i 



1814,316; 1111815,317; in 1856,355; cap- 
ture of, in 1814, 315; in 1815,317; in 1871, 
361, 362; Commune of, in 1871, 362. 

Parr, Catharine, 202. 

Parthenon, the, of Athens, 55. 

Patrick, St., 169. 

Patricians of Rome, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80. 

Pavia, capture of, by Charlmagne, 134; battle 
of, 193. 

Pavia, General, coup d' etat of, 363. 

Pedro I., Dom, of Brazil, 330; II., 330, 352. 

Pelasgians, of Greece, 40; of Italy, 73. 

Pelopidas, 53. 

Peloponnesian War, 50, 51. 

Peloponnesus, 37, 417. 

Pelops, 417. 

Peninsular War, 311, 312. 

Penn, William, 246. 

Pennsylvania, colony of, 246. 

Pepin, d' Heristal, 126 ; the Little, 133. 

Pergamus, kingdom of, 67. 

Pericles, 50, 51. 

Persecutions of the early Christians, first, loi; ; 
second, 106; third, 106; fourth, 107; fifth, 
107; sixth, no; seventh, no; eighth, no; 
ninth, no; tenth, 112; the ten great, 112, 

113- 
Persian Empire, Medo-, 31, 32 ; under the Sas- 

sanidse, 109; modern, 214. 
Peru, Pizarro's conquest of, 213. 
Peter, St., 155; the Hermit, 150,151 ; the Great 

of Russia, 239, 257-261 : II., 261 ; III., 

270. 
Petition of Right, 221, 394. 
Pharaohs, 16. 
Pharnaces, 97. 
Pharsalia, battle of. 96. 
Philip, the Great, of Macedon, 59; V., of 

Macedon, 65,87: the Arabian, no; I. ot 

France, 16; ; Philip Augustus, 154, 155, 

165 ; the Hardy, 166 ; the Fair, 157, 163, 

166 ; the Tall, 166 ; of Valois, 166, 171 ; of 
Anjou, 254, 255, 256, 25f , the Bold, of Bur- 
gundy, 167, 168; II. of Spain, 203-206; 
III., 204; IV,, 234. 

Philippi, battles of, 99. 

Philosophy, Grecian, 46, 54, 70; scholastic, 
147 ; modern, 249, 250, 300, 301, 378, 379. 

Phoenicians, the, 23, 24. 

Phrygia, 29. 

Pisa, republic of, 175. 

Pisistratus, usurpation of, 45. 

Pitt, William, the elder, 268, 269, 270, 275, 279 ; 
the younger, 292, 309, 310. 

Pius II., 177; IV., 199; VI., 295; VII., im- 
prisonment of, by Napoleon I., 313; IX., 

„ 341, 363- 

Plague, of Athens, 51 ; Black, of 1347, 166; of 
London, in 1665, 229. 

Plantagenet, Henry, 165, 169 ; dynasty of, 169- 

« 173- 

Platsea, battle of, 49 ; siege and tall of, 51. 

Plebeians in Rome, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80. 

Poiliers, battle of. 167, 171. 

Poland, history of, in the Middle Ages, 182, 
183; under the Jagellos, 183; in the 17th 
century, 238 ; partitions of, 273, 274 ; rebel- 
lions in, against Russia, in 1830, 334 ; in 
1863, 358. 

Poles. 182. 

Polish Succession, War of the, 262. 

Pompeii, destruction of, 106. 

Pompey, 04, 95, 96. 

Ponce de Leon, John, 213. 

Poniatowski, Stanislas, 273, 274, 

Pontus, kingdom of, 67. 

Popes of Rome, 143, 144, 176, 177. 

Porsenna, 76, 421. 

Portugal, rise of, 178. 

Portuguese discoveries, 186, 187, colonial em- 
pire, 214. 

31 



Porus, 62. 

Pragmatic Sanction, 262, 263. 

Prsetors, office of, 80. 

Prtetorian Guards, 101. 

Pretender, the, 264, 265. 

Pride's Purge, 225. 

Priests, in Egypt, 18 ; in India, 34. 

Printing, invention of. 185. 

Protectants, origin of the name, 197. 

Protestantism, rise of, 195-201. 

Prussia, rise of, 238, 257 ; revolution of 1848 in, 

340. 
Pruth, battle of the, 260. 
Ptolemies in Egypt, 65, 66. 
Ptolemy, Lagus or Soter, 65 ; Philadelphus, 66; 

Euergetes, 66. 
Pultowa, battle of, 259. 
Punic W.irs, 83-90; First, 83, 84; Second, 84- 

87; Third, 88, 89. 
Puritans, rise of, in England, 210 , settlement 

in New England, 241, 242. 
Pydna, battle of, 65, 88. 

Pyramids of Egypt, 17, 18 ; battle of the, 296. 
Pyrrhus, wars of Rome with, 82. 

Quakers, origin of the, 253. 
Quatre Bras, battle of, 316. 
Quebec, foimding of, 247; capture of, by the 

English, 269 ; attack on, by the Americans, 

277. 
Quirinus, 73, 420. 

Races of Mankind, 11, 12, 13, 14. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 212, 216, 240; execution 
of, 216, 221. 

Ravenna, Exarch of, 127, battle of, 191. 

Rebellion, of the Spartan Helots, 50; of Spar- 
tacus, 94; of Wat Tyler, T71; the great 
English, 224, 225; Bacon's, 241; in the 
United States, 343-350. 

Reformation, the, 195-201. 

Reform Bill of 1832, 335 ; of 1867, 360. 

Regulus, 83, 84 ; death of, 423. 

Reign of Terror, 290, 293. 

Religions, varieties of, n ; Egyptian, 18; Chal- 
daean, 20; Assyrian, 21; Babylonian, 22; 
Phoenician, 23; Judaism, 24; of Zoroaster, 
33; Brahmanism and Buddism, 34, 35; 
Grecian, 37-40; Roman, 73, 74 ; Christian- 
ity, 102, 103, 112; Islam, 129, 130; Scan- 
dinavian, 138; War of, in Switzerland, 197; 
in Germany, 197, 198 ; in France, 207-209. 

Remus, 74, 419. 

Republics, the Athenian, 41, 45; the ancient 
Roman, 76-100; the Roman under Rienzi, 
177; Novgorod, 183; rise of the Swiss, 162; 
Venice, 174; Genoa, 175; Pisa, 175; Flor- 
ence, 175 ; rise of the Dutch, 205, 206; the 
English, 226 ; the American, 318; the first 
French, 291-297; the B.itavian, the Helvetic, 
the Cisalpine, the Parthenopeian, the Ro- 
man, and the Ligurian,296 ; Spanish Ameri- 
can, 331; second French, 338; third French, 
361 ; Spanish, 363. 

Restorations, Stuart in England, 228 ; Bourbon 
in France, 316, 317. 

Retreat of the Ten Thousand, 52. 

Revolt of the Ten Tribes, 26. 

Revolutions, the English, of 1688, 231, 232; the 
American, 274-284; the French, 284-297; 
European, of 1820, 330, 331; of 1830, 333- 
335 ; of 1848, 337-341 : the Greek, 332, 333 : 
Spanish, of 1868, 360 ; Spanish, 0^1873,363; 
Spanish American, 331 ; Texan, 332, 

Richard, the Lion-hearted, 154, 155, 169; IL, 
171, 172 ; III., 173. 

Richelieu, Cardinal, 233. 

Rienzi, Cola di, 176, 177. 

Right, Petition of, 221, 394. 

Rights, Bill of, 231, 232, 394, 395. 

Rivoli, battle of, 295. 



482 



INDEX. 



Robespierre, 289, 290, 292 ; fall of, 294. 

Roderick, 132. 

RoUo the Norman, 139. 

Roman Empire, flourishing period of, 100-108 
decline of, 108-112 ; conversion of, 112-116 
fall of, 116-119. 

Rome, history of, 72-123 ; foimding of, 74, 419 
struggle for existence, 76-80; constitutiona 
growth of, 76-80 ; conquest of Italy, 8<j-83 
Punic Wars and foreign conquests, S3-90 
civil wars. 90-100: the Empire, 100-124 
religion, 73, 74 ; literature, 90, 102, 108 
social life, 1 19-123. 

Romulus, 74, 75, 419; death of, 420. 

Roses, Wars of the, 172, 173. 

Roundheads, 223. 

Royal Society, founding of, 251. 

Rudolf, of Hapsburg, 161 ; II. of Germany, 
217. 

Rump Parliament, 225, 226, 227. 

Russia, in the Middle Ages, 383, 384 : under 
the Ivans, 383, 384 ; under the Romanoffs, 
239 ; Napoleon's invasion of, 313, 314 ; Ni- 
hilism, 366. 

Ryswick, Peace of, 232; 237. 

Sadowa, battle of, 359. 

Saladin, 154, 155. 

Salamis, battle of, 49. 

Sanscrit language in Ancient India, 33. 

Saracens, their empire, 129-133; their learning 

and civilization, 132, 133; their expulsion 

from Spain, 133, 179. 
Sassanida;, New Persian Empire of the, 109. 
Satraps, Persian, 32. 
Saul, reign of, 25. 

Savoy, Duchy of, 176; House of, 176. 
Saxons and Angles in Britain, 126 ; the Saxon 

Heptarchy, 126. 
Saxons, conquest of, by Charlemagne, 134. 
Saxon Emperors of Germany, 137. 
Saxony, 136, 137. 
Scsevola, Mutius, 421. 

Schleswig-Holstein wars, first, 340 ; second, 358. 
Schoolmen, 147. 
Science in Alexandria, 71 ; modern, 215, 250, 

251, 298, 299, 376, 377, 378. 
Scipio, Publius, 85 ; Africanus, 86,87; Asiati- 

cus, 87; /Emilianus, 89, 91. 
Scotland, history of, 179, 180, 181. 
Scots, Mary, Queen of, 181, 207, 209, 210, 211. 
Sedan, battle of, 361. 
Seleucidje, Syrian Fjnpire of the, 66, 67. 
Seleucus, 64, 66. 
Semitic races, 12, 14. 
Sennacherib, 20, 27. 

Sepoy mutiny in British India, 355, 356. 
Servius Tullius, 75. 
Sesostris, 16. 
Seven Days' Battles, 346. 
Seven Weeks' War, 358, 359. 
Seven Wise Men of Greece, 47. 
Seven Years' War, 265-271. 
Severus, Alexander, 109; Septimius, 109. 
Seymour, Jane, 202. 
Sicilian Vespers, 166, 177. 
Sicily, Roman province of, 84 ; in the Middle 

Ages, 177. 
Sidney, Sir Philip, 206, 212, 215, ; Algernon, 230. 
Sieyes, abbe, 297. 
Sigismund, of Germany and Hungary, 163, 164, 

182; I. and II. of Poland, 183. 
Slaverj', introduction of, into Virginia, 241 ; 

abolition of, in the British West Indies, 

335 ; in the United States, 346, 350. 
Slaves, Greek, 57 ; Roman, 122. 
Slavonians, 124, 136. 
Smerdis, 32. 

Sobieski, John, 238, 240. 
Social life, among the Greeks, 55-58 ; among the 

Romans, iig-123 ; in the Middle Ages, 150. 



Socrates, 52, 54. 

Solferino, battle of, 356. 

Solomon, reign of, 26. 

Solon, 29, 44, 47. 

Solyman the Magnificent, 185, 194, 204. 

Sophists in Athens, 54. 

South American wars, 367. 

South Sea Scheme, 262. 

■Spain, conquest of, by the Romans, 89; by the 
Visigoths, 118, 125 ; by the Saracens and 
Moors, 132 ; mediaeval history of, 133, 178; 
luider Ferdinand and Isabella, 179; under 
Philip II., 203, 204 ; Revolutions of 1820 
in, 330; civil war in. 3-;6; Revolution ot 
1868 in, 360; republic in, 363. 

Spanish Armada, 211. 212. 

Spanish American Revolutions, 331. 

Spanish Republic, rise and fall of, 363. 

Spanish Succession, War of the, 254-257. 

Sparta, rise of, 42; political and social institu- 
tions, 43 : character of its people, 43, 44. 

Spartacus, rebellion of, 94. 

Spire, Diet of, 197. 

Standing armies, establishment of, 192. 

Star-Chamber in England, abolition of, 223. 

States-General of Holland, 206 ; of France, 285, 
286. 

Steam-engine, improvement of, by Watt, 300. 

Stephen, of England, 169 ; of Hungary, 181. 

St. Louis, 156, 157, 165, 166. 

St. Paul, 103, 105. 

St. Peter, 105. 

St. Helena, Napoleon's exile to, 317. 

Stockholm, massacre of, 181,200; Peace of, 261. 

Strafford, Earl of, 222, 223. 

Stuarts, in Scotland, 180; in England, 221-232. 

.Sulla, qq, 94. 

Sully, t)uke of, 209. 

Superstition in Middle Ages, 150. 

Supremacy, Act of, 209. 

Surajah Dowlah, 267. 

Sweden, in the Middle Ages, 181 ; independence 
of, 200; in the 17th century, 237, 238. 

Syracuse, 42, 73 ; Athenian expedition to, 51 ; 
Roman capture of, 86. 

Syria, 28. 

Syrian Empire of the Selucidse, 66, 67. 

Tamerlane, 1S4. 

Tarquin the Elder, 75 ; the Proud, 75, 76, 430, 

421. 
Tell, William, 423. 

Ten, Council of, in Athens, 52; in Venice, 175. 
Ten Great Persecutions, the, 112. 
Ten Thousand, Retreat of the, 52. 
Ten Tribes, Revolt of the, 26. 
Terror, Reign of, 293. 
Teutons, their invasion of Italy, 92; Teutonic 

races, 14, 124. 
Tewksbury, battle of, 173. 
Thapsus, battle of, 97. 

Thebes, in Egypt, 17 ; in Greece, 37, 53, 60. 
Theban War, 53. 
Themistocles, 48, 49, 50. 
Theodore, King of Abyssinia, 366. 
Theodoric the Ostrogoth, 125. 
Thcodosius the Great, 117. 
Thermopylae, battle of, 48, 49. 
Thiers, Louis Adolphe, 338, 362, 364. 
Thirty Tyrants, of Athens, 52; of the Roman 

Empire, no. 
Thirty Years' War, 217-220. 
Tiberius, 103. 
Tilsit, Peace of, 310. 
Tippoo Sail), 272. 
Titus, 106. 

Toussaint L'Overture, 309. 
Tories in England, 230; in America, 276. 
Toulon, insurrection of, and siege of, 293. 
Toulouse, Raymond of, 159 ; battle of, 315. 
Tournaments, 143. 



INDEX. 



483 



Trafalgar, battle of, 309. 

Trajan, 106, 107. 

Tribonian, 127. 

Tribunes at Rome, 77. 

Triumvirate, First, 95 ; Second, 98. 

Trojan War, 40, 41. 

Troubadours, 148. 

Tudor, Henry, 173; House of, 173. 

Turgot, 285. 

Tullus Hostilius, 75, 420. 

Turks, Seljuk, 150, 152, 157. 

Turks, Ottoman, empire of, 184, 185 ; wars with, 

194, 204, 239, 240, 261, 274, 333, 354, 364. 
Twelve Tables, Laws of the, 78. 
Tyre, 24. 

Ulm capture of, 309. 

Uniformity, Act of^ 209. 

Union, Parliamentary, of England and Scotland, 
261 ; of England and Ireland, 271. 

Universities, Mediaeval European, 146; Ara- 
bian, 132, 133. 

United Slates of America, progress of the, 318- 
328 ; Slavery agitation and Civil War in 
the, 341-353. 

Ur, 19. 

Utrecht, Peace of, 257 ; Union of, 206. 

Valens, 116. 

Valentinian I., 116 ; II., 117; III , 118. 
Valois, Philip of, 166, 171 ; dynasty of, 166. 
Vandals, in Africa, 118, 125; capture of Rome 

by the, 119. 
Vasco da Gama, 187. 
Vasco Nunez de Balboa, 213. 
Vassals, 141. 
Vedas, 34. 

Veil, Roman conquest of, 79. 
Venice, history of, 174, 175. 
Verdun, Partition Treaty of, 135. 
Versailles, palace of, 234; Peace of, in 1783,283; 

in 1S71, 362. 
Vespasian, 105. 
Vespucci, Amerigo, 188. 
Victor Emmanuel, 356, 357, 362. 
Victoria, Queen, 336, 367 ; President Gaudalupe, 

of Mexico, 331. 
Virginia, Roman maiden, 78 ; colony of, 241. 
Virginius, Roman plebeian, 78. 
Visigoths in Spain, 118, 135. 
ViteUius, 105. 



Wagram, battle of, 312. 
Wallace, Sir William, 170, 180. 
Wallenstein, 218, 219. 
Walpole, Sir Robert, 262, 263. 
Washington, George, 266, 277-284, 318, 319 ; 
Washington city the United States capital, 

319- 
Waterloo, battle of, 316, 317. 

Wellesley, Sir Arthur, 312. , 

Wellington, Duke of, 312 315, 316, 317, 335. 
Wenceslas, 163, 164. 

Westphalia, Peace of, 220 ; kingdom of, 310. 
Whigs in England, 230 ; in America, 276. 
Wilberforce, William, 306, 335. 
William the Conqueror, 140, 165, 169; William 

Rufus, 169; William 111., 231, 332; IV., 

335, 336 ; of Orange, 405 ; I. of Prussia and 

Germany, 358, 360, 362, 366. 
Wolseley, Sir Garnet, 366, 370. 
Wolsey, Cardinal Thomas, 192, 201. 
Worcester, battle of, 226. 
Woerth, battle of, 361. 
Wycliffe, John, 148, 171. 

Xavier, St. Francis, 199. 
Xenophon, 52, 54, 55. 
Xeres de la Frontera, battle of, 131. 
Xer.Kes the Great, 32, 48, 49. 

Yezdejird, 131. 
Ynglings, 181. 
York, House of, 173. 
Yorktown, siege of, 282. 
Ypsilanti, Alexander, 332. 

Zatna, battle of, 87. 

Zapolya, John, 194. 

Zedekiah, last king of Israel, 27. 

Zend races and languages, 30. 

Zend Avesta, 33 

Zenobia, Queen of the East, iii. 

Zenta, battle of, 240. 

Zerubbabel, 27. 

Zeus, 37, 38. 

Zingis Khan, 184. 

Ziska, John, 164. 

Zorndorf, battle of, 268. 

Zoroaster, 33. 

Zulus, England's war with the, 367. 

Zurich, battle ot, 297. 

Zwingli, Ulrich, 197. 



JO 4. 



^j^fewflg^^^^^^^^fei 
















^^^^^^^^^ 


^^y^^lVf^^l^uM^ 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

llil'll 1111:1:11101:1 

018 485 599 9 ^J 




^^ 



^^^^^^^« 



^ 




